Lewis Henry Morgan · 1851 · Original 1851 Rochester edition (Archive.org DjVu text, identifier bp_417718) · Public Domain · uncorrected OCR — being verified against the scan
Researched among the Seneca in the 1840s with Ely S. Parker (Ha-sa-no-an-da); published Rochester, 1851 -- often called the first scientific ethnography of an American Indian people.
Served verbatim, era-bound vocabulary and all — the house frames, it never
paraphrases; what a passage does and does not show rides its receipt.
Book I, Chapter I
Introductory Outline. — Origin of the Iroquois. — Formation
OF THE League. — Intercourse with Europeans. — Wars with
Indian Nations. — Wars with the French. — Jesuit Mission¬
aries. — Number of the Iroquois. — Fidelity to the English. —
Dispersion of the Nations. — Present Condition. — Future
Prospects.
Among the Indian nations whose ancient seats
were within the limits of our republic, the Iroquois
have long continued to occupy the most conspicuous
position. They achieved for themselves a more re¬
markable civil organization, and acquired a higher
degree of influence, than any other race of Indian
lineage, except those of Mexico and Peru. In the
drama of European colonization, they stood, for
nearly two centuries, with an unshaken front, against
the devastations of war, the blighting influence of
foreign intercourse and the still more fatal encroach¬
ments of a restless and advancing border population.
[Book I.
Under their federal system, the Iroquois flourished
in independence, and capable of self-protection, long
after the New England and Virginia races had sur¬
rendered their jurisdictions, and fallen into the con¬
dition of dependent nations ; and they now stand
forth upon the canvass of Indian history, prominent
alike for the wisdom of their civil institutions, their
sagacity in the administration of the League, and
their courage in its defence. When their power and
sovereignty finally passed away, it was through the
events of peaceful intercourse, gradually progressing
to this result, rather than from conquest or forci¬
ble subjugation. They fell under the giant em¬
brace of civilization, victims of the successful war¬
fare of intelligent social life upon the rugged ob¬
stacles of nature ; and in a struggle which they
were fated to witness as passive and silent spec¬
tators.
As there is no connected history of the rise, pro¬
gress and decline of this Indian League, a brief
general outline seems to be demanded, to refresh the
mind of the reader, and to furnish a proper intro¬
duction to the following pages, which are devoted
to an exposition of its structure, principles and
spirit. The eventful history of this interesting por¬
tion of our indigenous population furnishes ample
materials for a separate work, the execution of
which, it is to be hoped, will ere long be accom¬
plished by capable hands.
At the era of Dutch discovery (1609), the Iro¬
quois were found in the possession of the same
Ch. L]
ORiam OF THE IROQUOIS.
territories between tbe Hudson and tbe Genesee
rivers, upon wMcb they afterwards continued to re¬
side until near tbe close of tbe eighteenth century.
At that time, tbe Five Nations, into which they had
become subdivided, were united in a League ; but its
formation was subsequent to their establishment in
the territories out of which the state of New York •
has since been erected.
Them remote origin, and their history anterior to
the discovery, are both enshrouded with obscurity.
Tradition interposes its feeble light to extricate,
from the confusion which time has wrought, some
of the leading events which preceded and marked
their political organization. It informs, us that prior
to their occupation of New York, they resided in
the vicinity of Montreal, upon the northern bank of
the St. LaVrence, where they lived in subjection
to the Adirondacks, a branch of the Algonquin
race, then in possession of the whole country north
of that river. At that time, the Iroquois were but
one nation, and few in number. From the Adhon-
dacks they learned the art of husbandry, and while
associated with them, became inured to the hard¬
ships of the war-path and of the chase. After they
had multiplied in numbers and improved by ex¬
perience, they made an attempt to secure the inde-
'j^ndent possession of the country they occupied ;
but haHng been, in the struggle, overpowered and
vanquished by the Adirondacks, they were com¬
pelled to retire from the country, to escape extermi¬
nation.
[Book I.
The period of their migration from the north can¬
not now be ascertained. Tradition informs us, that
having ascended the St. Lawrence to lake Ontario,
and coasted its eastern shore to the mouth of the
Oswego river, they entered through this channel the
central parts of New York. Their first settlements,
they believe, were located upon the Seneca river,
where for a time they dwelt together. At a sub¬
sequent day they divided into bands, and spread
abroad to found new villages. One, crossing over
to the Mohawk, established itself at Gorne-gor
ha'-ga^ below Utica, and afterwards became the Mo¬
hawk nation. This village, situated upon the south
side of the Mohawk river, in Herkimer county, is sup¬
posed to have been the oldest settlement of that
nation. For some years the Oneidas and Ononda-
gas were one nation ; but one part of ifi having be¬
come established at Gorno-ctrlo'-hale^ east of the
Oneida lake, in time became independent; while
the other, planting themselves in the Onondaga val¬
ley and on the hills adjacent, became also a separate
nation. In like manner, the Cayugas and Senecas
were many years united, and resided upon the Sen¬
eca river; but one band of them having located
themselves upon the east bank of the Cayuga lake,
grew up in time into a distinct nation ; while the
residue, penetrating into the interior of western
New York, finally settled 2X NmfirdcHx>a}-o^ at the
head of the Canandaigua lake, and there formed the
nucleus of the Seneca nation.
The Onondagas have a legend that they sprang
Ch. I]
out of the ground on the banks of the Oswego river ;
and the Senecas have a similar legend, that they
sprang from the ground at Nurirda-wa'-o. By these
legendary inventions, they designed to convey an
impression of the remoteness of the period of their
first occupation of New York.
These several bands were, at first, obliged to con¬
tend with the various tribes whom they found in
possession of the country. After their expulsion,
the interests and pursuits of the five nations not
only became distinct, but the severance was followed
by a gradual alienation, finally resulting in a state
of open warfare, which continued for an unknown
period. The project of a League originated with
the Onondagas, among whom it was first suggested,
as a means to enable them more effectually to resist
the pressure of contiguous nations. The epoch of
its establishment cannot now be decisively ascer¬
tained; although the circumstances attending its
formation are still preserved by tradition with great
minuteness. These traditions all refer to the north¬
ern shore of the Onondaga lake, as the place where
the Iroquois chiefs assembled in general congress,
to agree upon the terms and principles of the com¬
pact, by which their future destinies were to be
linked together. It is evident from their tradition¬
ary history, which is entitled to considerable credit,
that they had long occupied the country before
their necessities or increase of numbers, made the
League a feasible or desirable consummation. In re¬
lation to the period of its origin, there are some
[Book I.
circumstances connected witli their first intercourse
with Europeans, tending to show that it had sub¬
sisted about a century at the era of Dutch dis¬
covery ; on the other hand, their principal traditions
indicate a period far more remote.
After the formation of the League, the Iroquois
rose rapidly in power and influence. It gave them
additional strength by concentration of effort; a
constant mcrease of numbers by the unity of the
race; and a firmer establishment, through their
more ample means for self-protection and foreign
conquest. One of the fii’st results of their federal
system was a universal spirit of aggression ; a thirst
for military glory and political aggrandizement,
which made the old forests of America resound
with human conflicts from New England to the
Mississippi, and from the northern confines of the
great lakes to the Tennessee and the hills of Carolina.
Unrecorded, except by tradition, is the narrative of
the warhke achievements of this gifted and progres¬
sive race, who raised themselves, through the vicis¬
situdes of incessant strife, to a general and acknowl¬
edged supremacy over these boundless territories.
Without considering the terrible and ferocious char¬
acteristics of Indian warfare, it must be admitted
that the empire which they reared over Indian na¬
tions, furnishes no slight evidence of their hardi¬
hood, courage and sagacity.
With the first consciousness of rising power, they
turned their long-cherished resentment upon the
Adirondacks, who had oppressed them in their in-
Ch. L]
fancy as a nation, and liad expelled them from their
country, in the first struggle for the ascendency.
This war raged for a long time with unceasing ani¬
mosity, and was continued nearly fifty years after
the commencement of French occupation, until the
descendants of the ancient Adirondacks were almost
totally extirpated. At the era of French discovery
(1535), the latter nation appear to have been dis¬
possessed of their original country, and driven down
the St. Lawrence as far as Quebec. When Jaques
Cartier first ascended this river in 1535, the country
about Quebec was in the possession of a people
speaking the Algonquin language, doubtless the
Adirondacks, while the site of Montreal was occu¬
pied by a nation speaking the Huron tongue, of
which the language of the Iroquois is a branch.
After the permanent occupation of Canada by the
French, in 1607, the Adirondacks became their
allies ; but the protection of the former was insuf¬
ficient to shield them against the hostile visitations
of their hereditary enemy.
A new era commenced with the Iroquois upon
the establishment of the Dutch trading-post at
Orange, now Albany, in 1615. The principal In¬
dian nations upon the north were the Hurons and
Adirondacks ; upon the west, the Fries, bTeuter Na¬
tion, Miamis, Ottawas, and Illinois ; upon the south,
the Shawnees, Cherokees, Catawbas, Susquehan-
nocks, Nanticokes, Delawares, and some lesser tribes ;
and upon the east, the Minsi and New England
Indians. Some of these nations had been subdued
1^
[Book I.
and made tributary. At tbis time, tbe Iroquois
bad grown up into a populous and powerful con¬
federacy and were rapidly advancing to a general
supremacy in tbe nortb-eastern section of tbe con¬
tinent. No Indian race east of tbe Mississippi bad
reached sucb a position of authority and influence,
or were bound together by sucb enduring institu¬
tions. Firmly established upon the territory of
New York, and above the danger of displacement
from adjacent nations, they bad already entered upon
that career of conquest, which they afterwards pros¬
ecuted with sucb signal success.
Friendly relations were established between tbe
Iroquois and tbe Dutch, which continued without
interruption until the latter surrendered their pos¬
sessions upon the Hudson to the English, in 1664.
During this period, a trade sprang up between them
in furs, which the Iroquois exchanged for European
fabrics, but more especially for firearms, in the use
of which they were afterwards destined to become
so expert. The English, in turn, cultivated the
same relations of friendship which had been com¬
menced with them by the Dutch. A “covenant
chain” was establishedbetweenthem, which the Iro¬
quois, with singular fidelity, preserved unbroken, un¬
til the independence of the American states terminat¬
ed the jurisdiction of the English over the country.
It was otherwise, however, with the French.
From the first to the last, they encountered the un¬
compromising and inveterate enmity of the League.
As early as 1609, Champlain, having ascended
Ch.1]
tlirougTi tlie lake wMck now bears bis name into
lake George, accompanied by tbe Adirondacks, fell
in witb a war-party of tbe Mobawks, numbering
about two hundred, and an engagement ensued be¬
tween them on tbe western shore of tbe lake. This
was tbe first battle between tbe Iroquois and tbe
Europeans, and tbe first time tbe former beard tbe
sound of firearms, by tbe marvellous power of
which they were then easily vanquished. Tbe
French having allied themselves witb tbe Adiron¬
dacks and Hurons, given them arms and assistance,
and incited them against tbe Iroquois, a spirit of
hatred was aroused against them, which never ceas¬
ed to burn until tbe final subjugation of Canada by
tbe English, in 1Y60. Besides this alliance witb
their ancient enemies, tbe French were more in¬
clined to resort to intimidation in their intercourse
witb tbe Iroquois, than to conciliation and forbear¬
ance. In addition to these errors of policy, was tbe
deep and abiding interest taken by tbe latter in tbe
country about Montreal, which in ancient times bad
been tbe home of their fathers, which bad been tbe
theatre of their first military success, and which they
bad long continued to bold by tbe slender tenure
of Indian conquest. As tbe rival colonies of France
and England were for many years nearly equally
balanced, tbe enmity and power of tbe Hode'nosau-
nee were sufilcient to turn tbe scale against tbe for¬
mer. To this Indian League, France must chiefly as¬
cribe tbe final overthrow of her magnificent schemes
of colonization in tbe northern part of America.
[Book I.
Witli the possession of fii*earms commenced not
only the rapid elevation, hut absolute supremacy
of the Iroquois over other Indian nations. In 1643,
they expelled the Neuter Nation from the Niagara
peninsula, and established a permanent settlement
at the mouth of that river. They nearly exter¬
minated, in 1653, the Eries, who occupied the
south side of lake Erie and from thence east to the
Genesee, and thus possessed themselves of the whole
area of western New York, and the northern part of
Ohio. About the year 1670, after they had finally
completed the dispei’sion and subjugation of the
Adirondacks and Hurons, they acquired posses¬
sion of the whole country between lakes Huron,
Erie and Ontario, and of the north bank of the
St. Lawrence, to the mouth of the Ottawa river,
near Montreal. On the north shore of lake Ontario
they founded several villages, in the nature of col¬
onial towns, to maintain possession of the conquered
territory.
They also made constant inroads upon the New
England Indians, who, after their partial subjugation
by the English, were unable to cope with the for¬
midable Iroquois. About the year 1670, they com¬
pelled them to break up many of them settlements,
and flee for safety and protection to the borders
of the English plantations. The name of the Iro¬
quois had then become a terror among Indian na¬
tions. “ I have been told,” (says Golden) “ by old
men in New England, who remembered the time
when the Mohawks made war on their Indians,
Ch.L] wars with the INDIAN NATIONS. 13
that as soon as a single Mohawk was discovered
in their country, their Indians raised a cry from hill
to hill, a Mohawk! a Mohawk! upon which they
fled like sheep before wolves, without attempting to
make the least resistance.”
In 1680, the Senecas with six hundred warriors
invaded the country of the Illinois, upon the bor¬
ders of the Mississippi, while La Salle was among
the latter, preparing to descend that river to the
sea. So great was the dread and consternation of
the Illinois, that they were inclined to abandon their
villages, and retire from the country, to escape the
fury of the conquering foe. At various times, both
before and after this period, the Iroquois turned
their w^arfare against the Cherokees upon the Ten¬
nessee, and the Catawbas in South Carolina, fre¬
quently returning from their distant expeditions with
numerous captives, to grace the narrative of their
invasions. Of these inroads they still preserve
many traditions. All the intermediate country be¬
tween the Alleghany and the Tennessee acknowl¬
edged their authority, and the latter river became
their southern boundary. War parties of the League
also made irruptions into the country of the Miamis,
others penetrated into the peninsula of Michigan,
and still others were seen upon the distant shores
of lake Superior. No distant solitude, or rugged
fastness was too obscure or difficult to escape their
visitation ; no enterprise was too perilous, no fatigue
too great for their courage and endurance. The
[Book L
fame of tlieir acMevements resounded over the con¬
tinent.
On the south-east, also, they extended theii’ con¬
quests. As early as 1607, Captain John Smith, the
founder of Yirginia, encountered a band of the L’o-
quois, in several canoes, upon the upper part of the
Chesapeak bay, then on their way to the territories
of the Powhattan confederacy. The Shawnees, Sus-
quehannocks, Nanticokes, Unamis, Delawares and
ISIinsi, were vanquished one after another, and re¬
duced to the condition of dependent nations. Even
the Canarse Indians, in their sea-girt home upon
Long Island, foimd no protection against their at¬
tacks. In fact, they traversed the whole country
from the St. Lawrence to the Tennessee, and from
the Atlantic to the IVIississippi.
For about a century, from the year 1600 to the
year 1700, the Loquois were involved in an almost
uninterrupted wai’fare. At the close of this period,
they had subdued and held in nominal subjection
all the principal Indian nations occupying the ter¬
ritories which ai^e now embraced in the states
of New York, Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, the northern and western parts of Vir¬
ginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Northern Tennessee, Illinois,
Indiana, Michigan, a portion of the New England
states, and the principal part of Upper Canada.
Over these nations, the haughty and imperious Iro¬
quois exercised a constant supervision. If any of
them became involved in domestic difficulties, a del¬
egation of chiefs went among them and restored
Ch. L] WARS WITH THE INDIAN NATIONS. 15
tranquillity, prescribing at the same time tbeir
future conduct. Some of these nations, like the
Delawares, they prohibited from going out to war,
having denationalized them by taking from them
all civil powers. According to the Indian no¬
tion, they were made women, and were henceforth
to confine themselves to pursuits appropriate to the
Indian female. Such was the general awe and fear
inspired by their warlike achievements, that they
dictated to Indian nations their own terms of inter¬
course, and insisted upon the fulfilment of their re¬
quirements. In the conquered territories they often
established settlements or colonies of their own peo¬
ple, to exercise a species of superintendence over
their acquired possessions.
The multitude of independent tribes into which
the generic stocks of the continent had become
subdivided, and their want of concert and unity,
were extremely favorable to the career of conquest
pursued by the Iroquois. In their disunited con¬
dition, they could but feebly resist the concen¬
trated energies secured to the latter through the
League.
About the year lYOO, the Iroquois reached their
culminating point. They had reared a colossal
Indian empire, so far as its sway over the aborigi¬
nes was concerned, and in comparison with any
Indian power which had risen north of the Aztec
monarchy. Having established their dominion se¬
curely against all races ‘ of Indian lineage, and
strengthened the bonds of union among themselves
16 STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE. [Book I.
beyond tlie power of civil dissensions, tbey would
seem to have prepared themselves for a still higher
progress, thi’ough the pursuits of peace ; but a dif¬
ferent and more^eadly enemy than the Indian had
ali'eady stretched out its arms to enfold them in its
withering embrace.
During the same period, or rather from about the
year 1640 to the year 1100, a constant warfare was
maintained between the Doquois and the French,
interrupted occasionally by negotiations and brief
intervals of peace. As the former possessed both
banks of the St. Lawrence, and the circuits of lakes
Erie and Ontario, they intercepted the fur trade,
which the French were anxious to maintain with
the western nations. Upon this trade much of the
prosperity of the new colony depended, for it fur¬
nished the chief article of export, and yielded the
most profitable retmms. But the war parties of
the League ranged through these territories so con¬
stantly, that it was impossible for the French to
pass in safety through the lakes, or even up the St.
Lawrence above Montreal. Them traders were
captured, and the rich furs of the west not only be¬
came the spoil of the victors, but the traders them¬
selves were often led into captivity, and perhaps to
the stake. So great was the fear of these sudden
attacks, that both the traders and the missionaries
were obliged to ascend the Ottawa river to near its
source, and from thence to cross over to the Sault St.
Marie, and the shores of lake Superior. For these
reasons the French were extremely anxious, either
Ch.L] wars with the FRENCH 17
to detacli tlie Iroquois from the English and gain
their alliance, or to reduce them to subjection by
conquest. They tried each successively, and in
both were equally defeated. The untractable and
politic Iroquois were averse to the former, and too
powerful for the latter. On numerous occasions
the ambassadors of the League were at Montreal
and Quebec, to negotiate with them for the adjust¬
ment of difficulties, and the exchange of prisoners ;
in some of which negotiations, the terms of a peace,
or at least of an armistice, were agreed upon ; but
these respites from warfare were of short duration.
The ravages committed upon the settlements of the
French were so frequent and so devastating, as to
place the colony in imminent peril. But for the
constant supplies from the mother country, the
French power in Canada would inevitably have
been overthrown at several different periods prior
to 1700.
To retaliate for these frequent inroads, and to
prevent their recurrence, the country of the Iro¬
quois was often invaded by the French. On seve¬
ral occasions they drew out the whole force of the
colony, to devastate the villages of the League ; but
after the most toilsome expeditions into the heart
of the wilderness of New York, they returned with¬
out having accomplished sufficient to reward them
for the fatigues and perils of the enterprise. The
Iroquois invariably retired into the depths of the
forest, leaving nothing but their deserted tenements
and fields of corn to await the invader. In this man-
[Book L
ner the unwearied perseverance and indomitaWe
courage of the French were rendered futile against
such an evanescent adversary.
In 1665, M. Courcelles, governor of Canada, led
a strong party into the country of the Mohawks ;
but the hardships they encountered rendered it ne¬
cessary for them to return, vdthout accomplishing
their purpose. The next year, M. De Tracy, vice¬
roy of ]^ew France, with 1200 French and 600 In¬
dians, renewed the invasion with better success.
He captured Te-d-tmirtcUo’-ga^ one of the principal
villages of the Mohawks, situated at the mouth of
the Schoharie creek ; but after destroying the town,
and the stores of corn, which they found in caches,
they were obliged to retire without meeting an op¬
posing force. Again, in 1684, M. He La Barre,
then governor of Canada, entered the country of the
Onondagas with about 1800 men. Having reach¬
ed Hungry bay, on the east shore of lake Ontario,
a conference was had with a delegation of Hoquois
chiefs, headed by Garangula, the celebrated Onon¬
daga orator. After they had exchanged recrimina¬
tions and mutual defiance, a species of ai’mistice was
finally agreed upon, and thus the expedition ended.
A more successful enterprise was projected and
carried into execution, in 1687, by M. He Honville,
then governor of Canada. Having raised a force
of 2000 French and 600 Indians, he embarked
them in a fleet of 200 bateau, and as many birch
bark canoes. After coasting lake Ontario from
Kingston to Irondequoit bay, in the territory of
Ch. L]
the Senecas, he landed at the head of this bay, and
found himself within a few miles of the principal
Tillages of the Senecas, which were then in the
counties of Ontario and Monroe. The nearest vil¬
lage was Gdro-sa^a' near Victor, in the county
of Ontario, and the next G&nu7irdaf-gwa^ at the
foot of the Canandaigua lake. Taking the trail
which led directly to these villages, De ISTonville
marched upon the fimt. After rej)ulsmg a body of
500 Senecas, with whom he had a sharp engage¬
ment, he took and destroyed the town, which had
been deserted by its inhabitants. Meeting with no
further opposition, as the Senecas had retired into
the interior, he marched southward as far as Da-yo-
de-hok’-to^ a village situated at the bend of the Ho-
neoye outlet, west of Mendon, in the county of
Monroe. This was the largest village of the Sene¬
cas, according to the official statement of De ISTon-
ville, and was the place selected for the execution
of the (wte^ by which they took formal possession
of the country of the Seneca-Iroquois, in the name
of France. Four villages, with their extensive fields
of com then growing, were burned and devastated,
after which the French aimy retired.
To retaliate for this invasion, a formidable party
of the Iroquois, in the fall of the same year, made
a sudden descent upon fort Chambly, on the Sorel
river, near Montreal. Unable to capture the fort,
which was resolutely defended by the garrison, they
ravaged the settlements adjacent, and returned with
a number of captives. About the same time, a
[Book I.
party of 800 attacked Frontenac, on tlie site of
Kingston, and destroyed and laid waste the planta¬
tions and establishments of the French mthout the
fortification. In July of the ensuing year, the
French were made to feel stiU more sensibly the
power of theii' revenge. A band of 1200 warriors,
animated with the fiercest resentment, made a de¬
scent upon the island of Montreal. They had cov¬
ered theii* plans with such secrecy, and advanced
with such celerity, that the inhabitants had no ad¬
monition of their approach. Their first intimation
of impending danger was the feaifol onset of the
Iroquois. Unprepared, and vdthout the means of
resistance, they were overpowered and slain in
every dii'ection. All that were without the fortifi¬
cations fell under the rifle or the relentless toma¬
hawk. Their houses were burned, their plantations
ravaged, and the whole island covered with desola¬
tion. About a thousand of the French, according
to some vwiters, perished in this invasion, or were
carried into captivity. When the work of destruc¬
tion was completed, the Iroquois retired, bearing
with them the spoils of the island, and about 200
prisoners.
Overwhelmed by this sudden disaster, the French
destroyed their forts at Niagara and Frontenac, and
thus yielded the whole country west of Montreal to
the possession of the Iroquois. At this critical pe¬
riod Count Frontenac again became governor of
Canada, and during the short residue of his life, de¬
voted himself, with untiring energy, to restore its
Oh. L]
declining prosperity. War liad now commenced be¬
tween the English and French, which drew his first
attention to the defence of Quebec against the attack
of the English ; but after this had been successfully
resisted, he again sought to chastise the fierce ene¬
my, who had so long disputed with the French the
possession of Canada. In the winter of 1692, he
sent a detachment of 600 French and Indians against
the Mohawks ; which, after travelling through the
dense forests upon snow-shoes, and encountering al¬
most insurmountable obstacles, finally reached in
safety the vicinity of the Mohawk villages. They
surprised and captured three of these, took three
hundred prisoners, and returned with the loss of
thirty men. Again, in 1696, Count Frontenac con¬
ducted an expedition in person against the Onon-
dagas and Oneidas, with a thousand French and as
many Indians. Having ascended the St. Lawrence
in bateau and bark canoes, he coasted the eastern
shore of the lake, to the mouth of the Oswego river.
From thence he marched to the salt springs, near
the site of Syracuse, and up the Onondaga valley to
the principal village of the Onondagas. He found
it, as usual, desei’ted, although fortified with pali¬
sades, and supplied with stores of corn. The vil¬
lage was then burned, and the growing corn, which
was found in great abundance in the fields adja¬
cent, was cut down with the sabre. A detachment
was then sent against the Oneidas, under M. He
Vaudreuil, by whom their fields also were laid waste,
after which the French army returned to Canada.
[Book L
This was the last French invasion of the territo¬
ries of the Iroqnois. A general peace soon follow¬
ed, and continued without interruption, until the
war of 1^55, which finally resulted in the conquest
of Canada by the English, in 1760.
From the commencement of English intercourse
with the Iroquois, down to the independence of the
American states, the covenant of friendship between
them remained unbroken. The importance of concili¬
ating this powerful confederacy was fully appreciated
by the colonial authorities, especially during the in¬
fancy of the English establishments. Unwearied pains
were taken by them to secure and retain their favor
and confidence. Each successive governor announced
his arrival to the Sachems of the League, and invit¬
ed them to meet him in council, at an early day, to
renew the “ covenant • chain.” Each new alliance
was cemented presents, by mutual professions of
kindness, and by assurances of mutual assistance.
An intercoimse sprang up between them in matters
of trade, and in public affairs, which continued to
increase, until councils with the Iroquois became
nearly as frequent as the sessions of the provincial
legislature. Independent of the profitable trade in
furs, with which they enriched their commerce, they
felt the necessity of interposing the power of the
Indian League, as a barrier to French progress, not
only towards their own settlements, but also tow¬
ards the west. The French were constantly striv¬
ing to open an extensive fur trade with the western
nations, and for its necessary protection, to extend
Ch.L]
their possessions np the St. Lawrence, and upon the
northern shores of lake Ontario. With the exclu¬
sive navigation of this river and lake, they would
have obtained nearly the absolute control of this
important trade ; under the powerful stimulus of
which, the strength and prosperity of the French
colony would have risen with such rapidity, as to
threaten the security of the English possessions.
Both the English and the French were fully aware
of the important part the Iroquois were destined
to bear in the drama of colonization ; but the for¬
mer, by their superior advantage of position, and
from their greater dependence upon the forbearance
of the League, were induced to pursue a com’se of
policy which gained their unchangeable friendship.
The French would inevitably, if unopposed by
them, have possessed themselves of the greater part
of New York, and, perhaps, have established their
empire so firmly, that the united forces of the Eng¬
lish colonies would have been unable to effect their
displacement. At on-e period, the French had push¬
ed their settlements up lake Champlain, until both
sides of the lake, as far up as the foot of lake George,
were covered with French grants.
A reference, at least, to the missionary efforts of
the French, while in the occupation of Canada,
ought not to be omitted. While the English en¬
tirely neglected the spiritual welfare of the Indians,
the French were unremitted in their efforts to spread
Christianity among them. The privations, and hard¬
ships endured by the Jesuit missionaries, and the zeal.
[Book L
the fidelity and devotion, exhibited by them, in theii’
efforts for the conversion of the Indian, are unsur¬
passed in the history of Christianity. They travers¬
ed the forests of America alone and unprotected ;
they dwelt in the depth of the vdlderness, without
shelter, and almost vdthout raiment ; they passed the
ordeal of Indian captivity, and the fires of the tor¬
ture ; they suffered from hunger and violence ; but in
the midst of all, they never forgot the mission with
which they were intrusted. The fruits of these la¬
bors of Christian devotion are yet visible among the
descendants of the ancient Iroquois ; for the pre¬
cepts spread abroad among them by the missionaries
are still in the Indian mind, and many of them have
been incorporated by them into their own religious
system. The intercourse of the French Jesuits mth
the Iroquois famishes, in some respects, the most
pleasing portion of their history.
In 1715, the Tuscaroras, ha\dng been expelled
from North Carolina, turned to the north, and
sought a home among the Iroquois, on the ground
of a common origin. That they were originally de¬
scended from the same stock is sufficiently evinced
by their language. They w^ere admitted into the
League as a constituent member, and a portion of
the Oneida territory assigned to them as their future
home. After this event, the Iroquois, who had be¬
fore been styled by the English the “ Five Nations,”
were known by them under the name of the “ Six
Nations.”
With this brief and barren outline of prominent
Ch.I.] number of the IROQUOIS. 25
events, tlie civil history of the Iroquois, prior to
1Y60, is dismissed.
It is difficult to form a correct estimate of their
number ; the opinions of those having the best op¬
portunities of judging have been so various. La
Hontan placed them at 7 0,000. The estimate made
by Col. Coursey, at Albany, in 1677, gave them
about 15,000 ; but it is known that his means of
judging were very imperfect. Bancroft estimates
them, including the Tuscaroras, at 17,000. Calcu¬
lations made at a later day, after they had greatly
declined in number, allowed them 10,000. This
was substantially the estimate of Sir William J ohn-
son, in 1763. There is a tradition among the Sen¬
ecas, that at the period of their highest pros¬
perity and numbers, they took a census of their
nation, by placing a kernel of white flint corn
for each Seneca, in a corn husk basket, which, from
the description of its size, would hold ten or twelve
quarts. Taking the smallest size, and making the
estimate accordingly, it will give us the number of
Senecas alone at 17,760. At the present time there
are about 7,000 Iroquois within the United States
and Canada, who have continued to preserve their
lineage and nationality through all their vicissi¬
tudes. This appears from the reports of the Indian
Department, and from other sources of information.
It is well understood, that the decline of the Iro¬
quois commenced with their first intercourse with
Europeans. The possession of firearms, and their
use in Indian w'arfare, the introduction of ardent
26 STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE. [Book L
spirits among them, with its train of frightful ex¬
cesses, and their incessant conflicts with the French,
and with Indian nations, were calculated to waste
them away with great rapidity. In 1^50, from
these various causes, they had become diminished
about one half. Another and a prominent cause of
the decline of the Iroquois, was the large numbers
induced, at various times, to emigrate to the banks
of the St. Lawrence, under the in^uence of the
Jesuit missionaries, and who, by placing themselves
under French protection, became the enemies of
their kindred, and of the League. The most suc¬
cessful colony of this description, was that estab¬
lished by the Abbe Picquet at Swe-ga'~clie^ on the
site of Ogdensburg, in 1749. The first year, he
constructed a fort of palisades, and commenced
with six Iroquois families ; in the second year, the
number of families had increased to eighty-seven,
and in the thu’d, to 396. Such was the influx from
the territories of the League to the new missionary
establishment, that, in 1754, the number of inhab¬
itants in their three villages, at and near Swe-ga'-cJie
was estimated by the French at 3,000. This band
were afterwards known as the “ Praying Indians,”
from their conversion to Christianity. Their de¬
scendants now reside upon the St. Eegis reservation,
in the county of St. Lawrence.
The period of their greatest prosperity, and of
their highest numbers, was evidently about the
year 1650, shortly after the commencement of their
intercourse with Europeans. At that time, their
Cn. L]
total population may be safely placed at 25,000.
A bigber estimate would be better supported by
sucb data as tbe case affords, than a lesser one ; al-
tbougb tbe impression of later writers seems to be
tbe contrary. An approximation to tbe relative
strength of tbe several nations of tbe League, upon
this basis, may be made by tbe following apportion¬
ment: To tbe Senecas, 10,000; to tbe Cayugas,
3000 ; to tbe Onondagas, 4000 ; to tbe Oneidas,
3000 ; and to tbe Mobawks, 5000. A century later,
tbeir total population was probably about balf tbis
number, tbe Mobawks having wasted away tbe
most rapidly.
A few brief observations upon tbe modern trans¬
actions of tbe Iroquois will close tbis outline.
From tbe close of tbe French war until tbe com¬
mencement of tbe American Revolution, was a time
of general peace. The Revolution placed them in
a position of great difficulty, as tbe Continental con¬
gress negotiated to secure tbeir neutrality, and tbe
English to obtain tbeir assistance. Tbeir sympa¬
thies, as was anticipated, were strongly enlisted in
favor of tbeir ancient ally, with whom, for upward
of a century, they bad maintained an unbroken
friendship. They were thoroughly English in sen¬
timent. Having no motive of self-interest to en¬
gage them on either side, neutrality was tbe true
policy of tbe League ; more especially, as tbe final
success of tbe American arms might lead to tbe
forfeiture of tbeir country, if they enbsted against
them. In tbe end, tbe appeals and tbe appliances
[Book L
of tlie Englisli were found irresistible ; and, placing
tbeir country and tlie homes of their fathers in the
event of the struggle, the people of the Long House
went out for the last time in battle array, not to
peril their lives for themselves, but to keep the
“ covenant chain” with a transatlantic ally.
^^dien the question of declaring for the English
came before the council of sachems and chiefs, the
Oneidas alone resisted the measure, as unvdse and
* inexpedient. Their opposition defeated the war
measure, as an act of the League, unanimity being
a fundamental law in the legislation of the Iroquois.
But the course of events had, at this time, greatly
impaired and weakened the confederacy. Their
power and numbers had wasted away; their political
existence, as an independent people, was drawing to
its close ; and it was- found impossible, under the
pressure of circumstances, to adhere to the ancient
principles of the League. It was finally determined,
that each nation might engage in the war upon its
own responsibility; so that, ultimately, the Mo¬
hawks, Onondagas, Cayugas and Senecas took up
the rifie for the Enghsh. The border wars of the
Eevolution, in which the L’oquois participated, and
the devastations which they committed in the val¬
leys of the Mohawk and Susquehanna, and their
tributaries, are too familiar to require a recital.
Their irruptions into the border settlements were
so frequent, and the track of their invasions was
marked with such desolation, that the American
congress were obliged to send against them a pow-
Ch. L]
erful detacliment, to lay waste their villages, and
to overawe them with the fear of final extirpation.
General Sullivan, in IY'79, led an army of four
thousand men into the Seneca territory, which he
penetrated as far as the Genesee, at that time the
centre of their population. After destroying their
principal towns, their fruit orchards, and stores of
grain, he returned to Pennsylvania ; having first
sent a detachment into the Cayuga territory to
ravage their settlements.
The treaty of peace between Great Britain and
the United States, in 1783, made no provision for
the Iroquois, who were abandoned in adversity by
their ally, and left to make such terms as they could
with the successful republic. A few years after¬
wards a general peace was established with the
north-western Indian nations, including the Iroquois,
all of whom had, more or less, become involved in
the general controversy. "With the restoration of
peace, the political transactions of the League were
substantially closed. This was, in effect, the ter¬
mination of their political existence. The jurisdic¬
tion of the United States was extended over their
ancient territories, and from that time forth they
became dependent nations.
During the progress of the Kevolution, the Mo¬
hawks abandoned their country S,nd removed to Can¬
ada, finally establishing themselves partly upon Grand
River, in the Niagara peninsula, and partly near
Kingston, where they now reside upon two reser¬
vations secured to them by the British government.
[Book I.
The Oneidas, notwithstanding their friendly po¬
sition during the war, in the end fared little better
than their Mohawk brethren. A rapid influx of pop¬
ulation, the tide of which set to the westward with
the restoration of peace, soon rendered their posses¬
sions valueless. Negotiations were immediately
commenced by the State for the purchase of their
lands, which they yielded from time to time in large
grants, until their original possessions were narrow¬
ed down to one small reservation. In these negotia¬
tions, as vreU with the other Iroquois nations as with
the Oneidas, the policy of the State of New York
was ever just and humane. Although their coun¬
try, with the exception of that of the Oneidas, might
have been considered as forfeited by the event of
the Revolution, yet the government never enforced
the rights of conquest, but extinguished the Indian ti¬
tle to the country by purchase, and treaty stipulations.
A portion of the Oneida nation emigrated to a reser¬
vation on the river Thames, in Canada, where about
400 of them now reside. Another and a larger band
removed to Green Bay, in Wisconsin, where they still
make their homes to the number of seven hundred.
But a small part of the nation have remained around
the seat of their ancient council-fire. One hundred
and twenty-six, according to the census of the last
year, are now dwelling near Oneida castle, in the
county of Oneida, and have become fully habituat¬
ed to an agricultural life.
Perhaps, in the result, the Onondagas have been
the most fortunate nation of the League. They
Ch. L]
still retain their beautiful and secluded valley of
Onondaga, with sufficient territory for their com¬
fortable maintenance, even with the limited produc¬
tion of Indian husbandry. After the Revolution,
they granted their lands to the State by treaty, with
the exception of the tract they now occupy, the pro¬
ceeds, as in other cases, being invested by the gov¬
ernment for their benefit. About a hundred and
fifty Onondagas now reside with the Senecas ; an¬
other party are established on Grand river, in Can¬
ada, and a few have removed to the west. The
total number still remaining at Onondaga is about
two hundred and fifty.
Over the fate of the Cayugas a feeling of regret
and sympathy is awakened, as having been even
less fortunate than their unfortunate kindred. This
nation has become literally scattered abroad. Im¬
mediately after the Revolution, the tide of popula¬
tion began to press upon them, and hem them in on
every side, to such a degree, that they were obliged
wholly to surrender their domain. In the brief
space of twelve years after the first house of the
white man was erected in Cayuga county (l'r89)
the whole nation was uprooted and gone. In 1795,
they ceded, by treaty, all their lands to the State,
with the exception of one reservation, which they
finally abandoned about the year 1800. A portion
of them removed to Green Bay, another to Grand
river, and still another, and a much larger band, set¬
tled at Sandusky, in Ohio, from whence they were
removed by government, a few years since, into the
[Book I.
Indian territory, west of tlie IMississippi. About
one bundred and twenty-five still reside among tbe
Senecas, in western IS'ewYork, and yet retain tbeir
name and lineage, and bave tbeb separate chiefs.
Those west of the ]\iississippi, and those residing
with the Senecas, divide between them the State
annuity of $2,300, which was secm’ed to them upon
the sale of their former possessions.
The Tuscaroras, after remoring from the Oneida
territory, finally located near the Niagara river,
in the vicinity of Lewiston, on a tract given to them
by the Senecas, where about thi’ee hundred of them
now reside.
After the displacement of the Cayngas, the flow
of population, still advancing westward with con¬
stantly augmenting force, next began to press upon
the broad domains of the Senecas. They passed
through the same ordeal to which the other nations
had been subjected, by means of which they were
speedily induced to grant away their lands, not by
townships and counties, but from river to river, re¬
serving here and there a small oasis, sufficient to
rescue a favorite village with its burial-place. Their
^ride-spread territories were in a few years narrowed
down, to gratify the demands of the white man,
until the residue of the Senecas ai’e now shut up
within three small reservations, the Tonawanda, the
Cattai'augus and the Allegany, which, united, would
not cover the area of one of the lesser counties of
the State. To embitter their sense of desolation as
a nation, the “ preemptive right” to these last rem-
Ch. I]
nants of their ancient possessions is now held by a
company of land speculators, the Ogden Land Com¬
pany, who, to wrest away these few acres, have pur¬
sued and hunted them for the last fourteen years,
with a degree of wickedness hardly to be paralleled
in the history of human avarice. Not only have
every principle of honesty, every dictate of hu¬
manity, every Christian precept been violated by
this company, in their eager artifices to despoil the
Senecas ; but the darkest frauds, the basest bribery,
and the most execrable intrigues which soulless ava¬
rice could suggest, have been practiced, in open day,
upon this defenceless and much-injured people.. The
natural feelings of man, and the sense of public jus¬
tice are violated and appalled at the narration of
their proceedings. It is no small crime against hu¬
manity to seize the firesides und the property of a
whole community, without an equivalent, and against
their will ; and then to drive them, beggared and
outraged, into a wild and inhospitable wilderness.
And yet this is the exact scheme of the Ogden Land
Company ; the one in which they have long been
engaged, and the one which they still continue
to prosecute. The Georgia treaty with the Chero-
kees, so justly held up to execration, is a white page,
compared with the treaties of 1838 and 1842, which
were forced upon the Senecas. This project has al¬
ready, however, in part, been defeated, by the load
of iniquity which hung upon the skirts of these
treaties ; and it is to be hoped, for the credit of hu¬
manity, that the cause of the Indian will vet tri-
2^ ^
[Book I.
umpli, and that the residue of the Senecas will he
permitted to dwell in peace in the land of their
nativity^
The census of last year fixes the number of Sen¬
ecas upon their then reservations, in western New
York, at two thousand seven hundred and twelve.
A small band, after the Eevolution, emigrated to
Grand river, where they now have a miniature of
the ancient League, and another removed to San¬
dusky, and from thence into the Indian territory.
Those at present within the State are rapidly im¬
proving in their social and moral condition ; as also,
it is believed, are those residing upon Grand river, in
Canada, where there are now about YOO Mohawks,
besides 500 near Kingston, 400 Onondagas, YOO Cayu-
gas, 300 Tuscaroras, and 200 Senecas and Oneidas.
From the sales of the lands of the Iroquois, at va¬
rious times, large sums of money have accrued, which
have been invested by the State and national gov¬
ernments for their benefit ; and the interest arising
from the same is now paid over and distributed
among them semi-annually. The Senecas alone have
an annual income from these sources, amounting to
$18,000.
There are still residing in the State of New York
about four thousand Iroquois. The several frag-
1 The Buffalo Reservation, which the corporate limits of the city. of
made the fourth reserved tract, and Buffalo, and was supposed to be worth
was the most valuable, has fallen into over a million of dollars. For the
the hands of the Ogden Company, but land, and its farming improvements,
not so much by virtue of the treaties, the Company paid the Senecas about
as by skilful management. It con- one hundred thousand dollars,
tains 49,000 acres of land bordering
Ch.L]
ments of the nations yet continue their relation¬
ships and intercourse with each other, and cling to
the shadow of the ancient League. At intervals
of one or two years, they assemble in general coun¬
cil to raise up, with their primitive forms and cere¬
monies, sachems to fill vacancies occasioned by death
or deposition. These councils are summoned and con¬
ducted, in all respects, as they were wont to be in
the days of Indian sovereignty. They still cherish
the remembrance of their fathers, and the institu¬
tions which they transmitted to them, with religious
affection In each nation, also, with the exception
of the Oneidas and Tuscaroras, the larger portion of
the people continue to adhere to their ancient faith
and worship; celebrating their religious festivals
after the original method, and preserving, in their
social intercourse, the habits and the customs of
their ancestors. It is another singular fact, in con¬
nection with their history, that since their adoption
of agricultural pursuits, as the exclusive source of
subsistence, their further decline has been arrested,
and they are now increasing in numbers. In many
respects they have become an interesting portion of
our population, yielding many hopes of their future
elevation. The policy of the State towards them has
ever been enlightened, humane and just, the govern¬
ment seizing upon every opportunity to promote
their welfare, to protect their interests, and to ex¬
tend to them facilities for education. It is a pleas¬
ing and a proud reflection, that there is a universal
spirit of kindness, sympathy and benevolence tow-
[Book L
ards tlie L’oquois, among tlie people of New York.
Tkey would sMeld tkem in tkeir defenceless condi¬
tion, stimulate tkeir efforts for social improvement,
encom’age tkeir aspirations for a Mglier life, and
finally, when they have become sufficiently advanced
in agricultural life, raise them to the condition of
citizens of the State.
The materials for the preceding chapter were drawn from the fol¬
lowing sources ; Golden’s Hist. Five Nations ; Charlevoix’s Hist. New
France ; Smith’s Hist. N. Y. ; Macauley’s Hist. N. Y. ; Doc. Hist.
N. Y. ; Morse’s Hist. Am. Rev. ; Bancroft’s Hist. U. S. ; Warburton’s
Conquest of Canada; Marshall’s Nar. De Non villa’s Exped. ; School¬
craft’s Notes on the Iroquois ; Doc’s of the Indian Department ; MSS.
Treaties witli the Iroquois, State Dep. Alby. ; Traditions of the
Onondagas, Tuscaroras, Seneca and Cayugas.
Book I, Chapter II
Indian Geography. — Home Country of the Iroquois. — National
Boundaries. — Trails. — Indian Map. — Ho-de'-no-sau-nee. — Na¬
tional Names.
Our Indian geography, excluding lines of lati¬
tude, descriptions of soil and climate, and precise
territorial limits, confines itself to the external fea¬
tures of the country, and to the period when the
hemlock and the maple, the pine and the oak, in¬
terlocked their branches in endless alternation,
spreading out from river to river, and from lake
to lake, in one vast, continuous, interminable
forest.
As the aboriginal, or poetic period of our territo¬
rial history recedes from us, each passing year both
deepens the obscurity upon the Indian’s footsteps,
and diminishes the power of the imagination to re¬
call the stupendous forest scenery by which he was
surrounded. To obtain a glance at the face of na¬
ture during the era of Indian occupation, the wave
of improvement must be rolled backward, not only
displacing, in its recession, the city and the village
which have sprung up in the wilderness; but re-
stoiing, also, by a simultaueous efibrt, the origi-
[Book L
nal drapery of nature, when clothed in her wild
attii’e.^
SuiTounded hy all the grandeur of this forest sce¬
nery, the Indian constructed his Gmio'-sote., or Bark
House, upon the winding stream, or on the margin
of the lake ; and, one of the multitudinous inhabi¬
tants of the forest, he passed his days and yeai’s in
sylvan pui’suits, unless he went forth upon the war¬
path in quest of adventure or renown.
Between the Hudson and lake Erie, our broad
territory was occupied by the Ho-de'-nosaiMiee^ or
Iroquois, scattered far and wide, in small encamp¬
ments, or in disconnected villages. Their council-
fires, emblematical of civil jmisdiction, burned con¬
tinuously from the Hudson to Niagai’a. At the era
of Dutch discovery, (1609) they had pushed their
permanent possession as far west ^ the Genesee ;
and shortly after, about 1650, they extended it to
the Magara. They then occupied the entire terri¬
tory of our State west of the Hudson, with the ex¬
ception of certain tracts upon that river below the
junction of the Mohawk, in the possession of the
Eiver Indians, and the country of the Delawares,
upon the Delaware river. But both these had been
subdued by the conquering Hoquois, and had be¬
come tributary nations.
The villages of the Mohawks were chiefly located
' In those forest days, the graceful not in flocks. It is said they stiU fre-
s\ran folded her -wings in unmolested quent the small lakes in the wild re-
sedusion upon our inland lakes; but gions of Xorthra-n Hew York. The
with the departure of the Indian, she American swan (Gygnus Americanus)
spread them again, and followed him. was called by the Senecas Ah-weh'-
They sat upon the water in pairs, and ah -ah
Ch.!!] home country OF THE IROQUOIS. 39
in tlie valley of tlie Mohawk, upon the south side
of the river. Around and near the Oneida lake
were the principal villages of the Oneidas. The
Onondagas were established in the valley of the
river of that name, and upon the hills adjacent. On
the east shore of the Cayuga lake, and upon the
ridge to the eastward, were the settlements of the
Cayugas. In the counties of Ontario and Monroe
were found the principal villages of the Senecas, the
most populous nation of the League. These were
their chief localities at the era of their discovery.
At a later period, in the progress of their inter¬
course and warfare with the whites, many of their
ancient settlements were abandoned, and new ones
established. This was especially the case with the
Senecas, until their villages, at various periods, have
been sprinkled over the whole area of western I^ew
York.
This territory, lying between the Hudson and
lake Erie, and embracing the most valuable portions
of our State, constituted the Home Country of the
Iroquois, as distinguished from other territories upon
the north, south, east and west, which they held in
subjection by conquest, and occupied only in the sea¬
son of the hunt. At the era of their highest military
supremacy, about the year 1660, the Iroquois, in
their warlike expeditions, ranged unresisted from
Hew England to the Mississippi, and from the St.
Lawu^ence to the Tennessee. They held under their
dominion the greater part of these vast territories
by the slender tenure of Indian conquest. But Hew
[Book I
York was tkeir hereditary country, the centre of
their power, and the seat of their council-fires.
Here were their villages, their fields of maize and
tobacco, their fishing and hunting grounds, and the
burial-places of their fathers. The Long House, to
which they likened their political edifice, opened its
eastern door upon the Hudson, while the western
looked out upon Niagara. At the epoch of their
discovery, this fair domain was the patrimony of
the Iroquois, the land of their nativity, if not of
their remote origin, and they had defended it
against hostile bands with a patriotism as glowing,
as such a fair possession could inspire m the heart
of man. They were not insensible to the political
advantages afforded by their geographical position.
It was their boast that they occupied the highest
part of the continent. Situated upon the head-wa¬
ters of the Hudson, the Delaware, the Susquehanna,
the Ohio and the St. Lawrence fiowing in everv
direction to the sea, they held within their jurisdic¬
tion, as it were, the gates of the country, and could,
through them, descend at wiU upon any point. At
the same time, lake Ontario, and the mountains
upon the north, and the range of the Alleganies
upon the south gave to their country itself an iso¬
lation, which protected them, in a great measure,
against the external pressure of migratory bands ;
while the lakes and streams, which in so remarkable
a manner intersected every part of the Long House,
and whose head-waters were separated only by short
portages, and its continuous valleys, divided by no
Ch. II.]
mountain barriers, offered them every facility for
the most rapid inter-communication. They them¬
selves declared that “ their country possessed many
advantages superior to any other part of America.”
A boundary line would seem at first to be a dif¬
ficult problem in Indian . geography. But a pecu¬
liar custom of our predecessors has divested this
subject of much of its embarrassment, and enabled
us to ascertain with considerable certainty the ter¬
ritorial limits of the nations of the League. The
Iroquois rejected all natural boundaries, and substi¬
tuted longitudinal lines. This appears to have re¬
sulted from the custom of establishing themselves
upon both banks of the streams upon which they
resided. Having no knowledge of the use of wells,
they were accustomed to fix their habitations upon
the banks of creeks, and easily forded rivers, or in
the vicinity of copious springs. Inland lakes were
never divided by a boundary line ; but the line itself
was deflected, that the entire circuit of each lake
might be possessed by a single nation. The natural
limits which rivers and lakes might furnish having
thus been disregarded, and straight lines substituted,
the inquiry is freed from some of its difficulties, and
greater certainty is given to their boundaries, when
certain points upon them are decisively ascertained.
After the expulsion of the Neuter Nation (Je-go'-
sorsa) from the borders of the Niagara river, in
1643,^ and of the Eries {Ga-gua'-ga-o-no) from the
^ Charlevoix, v. i p. 377. The Neu- quois as the “ Cat Nation the word
ter Nation were known to the Iro- itself {Je-go'-sasa) signifying “ a wild
42 STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE. [Book!
country between tbe Grenesee and lake Erie in 1655,^
tbe Senecas, wbo before these periods had resided
east of the Genesee, extended their jurisdiction over
the whole area between the Seneca lake and lake
Erie. On the east, their territory joined that of the
Cayugas. The line of boundary between them,
which is well authenticated, commenced at the head
of Sodus bay, on lake Ontario, and running south,
nearly upon the longitude of Washington, crossed
the Clyde river near the village of that name, and
the Seneca river about four miles east of its outlet
from the Seneca lake. Continuing south, and in¬
clining a little to the east, the line ran near
the lake at its head, and having crossed the Che¬
mung river east of Elmira, it passed into Pennsyl¬
vania.
The territory of the Cayugas lay upon both sides
of the Cayuga lake, and extended to the eastward
so as to include the Owasco. As the Senecas were
the hereditary “ Door-keepers” of the Long House,
in their figurative way of designating each other,
they were styled the first fire ; and so on .to the Mo¬
hawks, who were the fifth. Between the Cayugas
and Onondagas, who were the thii’d fire, the limital
line is not as well defined ; as the latter claimed far¬
ther to the westward than the boundary assigned.
It commenced on lake Ontario, near the mouth of
the Oswego river, and on its west side, and passing
between the Cross and Otter lakes, continued south
cat.” Charlevoix has assigned this * Ib. v. ii, p. 62.
name to the Eries, (v. il p. 62.)
Ch.IL]
into Pennsylvania, crossing tlie Susquehanna west
of Owego.
On the boundary line between the Onondagas
and Oneidas, the most prominent point was the
Deep Spring {JDe-o-song'-wa) near Manlius, in the
county of Onondaga. This spring not only marked
the limital line between them, but it was a well
known stopping-place on the great central trail or
highway of the Iroquois, which passed through the
heart of their territories from the Hudson to lake
Erie. From the Deep Spring, the line ran due
south into Pennsylvania, crossing the Susquehanna
near its confluence with the Chenango. North of
this spring the line was deflected to the west, leav¬
ing in the Oneida territory the whole circuit of
that lake. Crossing the 8Jie-u‘-ka^ or Oneida outlet,
a few miles below the lake, the line inclined again
to the east, until it reached the meridian of the
Deep Sj)ring. From thence it ran due north, cross¬
ing the Black river at the site of Watertown, and
the St. Lawrence to the eastward of the Thousand
Islands.
The testimony of the Iroquois concerning this
boundary line is confirmed by facts contained in
existing treaties. At the treaty of Fort Schuyler,
the Oneidas, after ceding “all their lands to the
people of the state of New York forever,” reserved,
in addition to them principal reservation, “ a con¬
venient piece of ground at the fishing-place in the
Oneida river, about three miles from where it issues
from the Oneida lake, to remain as well to the Onei-
[Book I.
das and their posterity, as for the inhabitants of the
State to encamp upon.”^ In the same treaty it
appears, that the Deep Spring was upon the west
boundary of the Oneida reservation.^
The Tuscaroras, upon their expulsion from North
Carolina, in 1Y12, turned to the north, and sought
the protection of the Ho-de'-no-sau-nee^ on the ground
of generic origin. They were admitted into the
League as the Sixth nation, and were ever after¬
wards regarded as a constituent member of the con¬
federacy, although never admitted to a full equality.
A portion of the Oneida territory was assigned to
them, lying upon the Unadilla river on the east^
the Chenango on the west, and the Susquehanna on
the south. Whether they occupied entirely across
the southern skfrt of the Oneida territory, as their
boundary is run upon the accompanying map, is a
matter of doubt, as the Oneidas might thereby have
cut off their southern possessions in Pennsylvania
and Virginia. To these southern lands the Tusca-
1 Vide Treaty of Fort Schuyler,
September 22, 1778. MSS. State
Department, Albany.
’ Judge Jones of Utica, in 1846,
in a letter in the author’s possession,
speaks of this spring as follows :
“Xear the summit of what was for¬
merly called the Canaseraga hiU,
near where now runs the road from
Chittenango to Manlius, is a large,
well-known, ever-living spring, famil¬
iarly known as the “ Big Spring.” The
excavation, whether made by Omnip¬
otence, or by human hands, may be
fifteen feet in diameter, and several
feet deep, with sloping sides, easy of
descent, and in the bottom is a reser¬
voir ever full. What is quite singu¬
lar is, that the water runs in at the
lower, and disappears at the upper
side of the reservoir. This spring,
while the old woods were its shade,
and the wild deer descended to taste
its limpid waters, was long the favorite
meeting-place between the Oneidas
and Onondagas. Here for ages had
the old men of the two nations met
to rehearse their deeds of war ; here
the young braves met in friendly con¬
clave. * * This was the boundary be¬
tween the nations.”
Ch. II.]
roras had no title, and it is probable that their terri¬
torial rights, which were never absolute, were re¬
stricted between the Unadilla and the Chenango.
The Oneidas, as the original owners of this tract,
were made a party, with the Tuscaroras, to the
treaty of Fort Herkimer, in 1785, by which it was
ceded to the State.‘ The Tuscaroras were partially
scattered among the other nations, although they
continued to preserve their nationality. They had
some settlements at a later day near the Oneida
lake, a village at the inlet of the Cayuga, and one
in the valley of the Genesee, below Avon. At a
subsequent period, the Senecas gave them a tract
upon the Magara river, where they afterwards re¬
moved ; and their descendants still occupy a reserved
portion of this land, near Lewiston, in the county
of Magara.
There were two other small bands, or remnants of
tribes, located within the territories of the Oneidas ;
the Mohekunnuks, situated a few miles south of
Oneida castle, and the Hew England Indians, south
of Clinton. For these lands they also were indebted
to the generosity of the Oneidas, to whom, as refu¬
gees, they applied for “ a place to spread their blan¬
kets and their possessions Avere subsequently se¬
cured to each band by treaty.
Of the several boundaries, that between the
Oneidas and the Mohawks is the most difficult to
establish ; there being a disagreement between the
* Vide Treaty of Fort Herkimer, June 28, 1186. MSS. State Dep.
[Book L
line of boundary as given by tbe Iroquois, and
that indicated, altbougb imperfectly, by existing
treaties. According to their own evidence, and it
is the safest authority, this line came down from the
north near the west boundary of Herkimer county,
and, crossing the Mohawk about five miles below
Utica, continued south into Pennsylvania. On the
other hand, it appears from various treaties with
the Oneidas, that they sold lands to the State on
both sides of the Mohawk, as low down as Herki¬
mer and the German Flats, and also on the Mo¬
hawk branch of the Delaware, as far east as Delhi.
After the departoe of the Mohawks, the Oneidas
might have asserted claims against the State, which
they would not against their brethren ; so also the
State may have preferred to include these lands, to
prevent all future disputation. The upper castle of
the Mohawks, Garne-gorhaJ -ga^ was situated in the
town of Danube, Herkimer county, nearly opposite
the junction of the West Canada creek with the Mo¬
hawk. From these facts, the boundary given may
be regarded as the most reliable. The territory of
the Mohawks extended to the Hudson and lake
Champlain on the east, with the exceptions before
mentioned, and northward to the St. Lawrence.
Such were the territorial divisions between the
several nations of the League. In their hunting
excursions they were accustomed to confine them-
» This was, doubtless, the oldest name. It is in the Seneca
village of the Mohawks ; as it is the dialect,
one from which the nation takes its
Ch. IL]
selves to their own domains: which, to a people
who subsisted, in part, by the chase, was a matter
of some moment. Upon their foreign hunting
grounds, which were numerous and boundless,
either nation was at liberty to encamp. By estab¬
lishing these territorial limits between the nations
of the League, the political individuality of each
was continued in view.
In intimate connection with our Indian geography
are the Trails, or forest highways of the Iroquois.
A central trail passed through the State from east
^ to west, intersected at numerous points by cross
trails, which passed along the banks of the lakes
and rivers. It commenced at the site of Albany
on the Hudson, and having touched the Mohawk at
Schenectady, it followed up this river to the carry-
mg-place at Home. From thence, proceeding west¬
ward, it crossed the Onondaga vaUey, the foot of
the Cayuga and of the Seneca lakes, the Genesee
valley at Avon, and finally came out upon the Buf¬
falo creek, at the site of Buffalo. This route of
travel was so judiciously selected, that after the
country was surveyed, the turnpikes were laid out
upon the Indian highway, with slight variations,
through the whole length of the State. This trail
not only connected the principal villages of the
Iroquois, but established the route of travel into
Canada on the west, and over the Hudson on the
east. The pursuits of trade, and the development
of the resources of the country in modern times
have shown this to be one of the great natural
[Book L
highways of the continent. It appears now to be
indicated by the geographical features of the terri¬
tory ; but as extensive intercourse was necessary to
its discovery, the establishment of this great route
of travel furnishes evidence of a more general in¬
tercourse of the Iroquois with the east and west,
than has ever been ascribed to them.
Upon the banks of the Susquehanna and its branch¬
es, the sources of which are near the Mohawk, and
■upon the banks of the Chemung and its tributaries,
which have their sources near the Genesee, were
other trails, all of which converged upon Tioga, at
the junction of these two principal rivers. They
became thus gathered into one, which, descending
the Susquehanna, formed the great southern trail
into Pennsylvania and Virginia.
For centuries upon centuries, and by race after
race, these old and deeply worn trails had been trod
by the red man. From the Atlantic to 'the Missis¬
sippi, and from the northern lakes to the Mexican
gulf, the main Indian routes through the country
were as accurately and judiciously traced, and as
familiar as our own. On many of these distant foot¬
paths the Iroquois had conducted warlike expeditions,
and had thus become practically versed in the geog¬
raphy of the country. Within their immediate ter¬
ritories, they were quite as familiar with the geogra¬
phical features, the routes of travel, the lakes, and
hills and streams, as we ourselves have since become.
In the accompanying map, an attempt has been
made to restore the geographical names of the Iro-
Ch. IL]
INDIAif MAP.
quois, as tliey stood at the period of its date (1^20.)
Many of our own names have their radices in the
dialects of the Iroquois; and as to such names, this
map is designed to furnish an index of their origin
and signification. Our geography is as yet incom¬
plete in the christening of some of the features of
nature, while some of the names in actual use might
be profitably exchanged for the aboriginal ; in both
of which cases such a map will at least offer a choice.
The date given to it introduces some anachronisms,
which will be obvious to the critical eye ; but these
do not furnish a sufficient reason for an earlier, or a
later date. The descendants of the Iroquois have
preserved, with great fidehty, the names of their
ancient localities; and have bestowed them upon
our cities and villages as they have successively ap¬
peared. It is but a fit tribute to our Indian prede¬
cessors, to record the baptismal names of our rivers,
lakes and streams, and also of their ancient sites.
An effort has been made to furnish these names
in the particular dialect of the nation within whose
territories the places or objects named were situ¬
ated ; and, vdth a few exceptions, this has been ac¬
complished. The nations spoke different dialects
of a common language; and although they could
understand each other with readiness, the distinc¬
tions between them were very decisive. These dia¬
lectical differences are more strongly marked in
their geographical names than in the body of the
several dialects themselves ; furnishing, perhaps, the
principal reason why these names are written so
[Book I.
variously. Thus tlie Iroquois name of Buffalo, in
the Seneca dialect is, Do-slio'-iueh^ in Cayuga De-o~
sho'-weh^ in Onondaga De-o-sa' -weJi^ in Oneida Der
ose'-lole^ in Mohawk De-o-hose'-lole and in Tuscarora
Ne-o-thro'-^^d. For the same purpose, and in the
same order, the variations in the name of Utica
may be cited : Nrni-dordd'-sis^ Nurirda-dd'-ses^ NoTie-
dordd'-sis^ Yoriiun-da-dd'-sw^ Yo-none-dd'-sis^ Ya-
nun^nd'-rats. The resemblance in these examples
are nearer than they are usually found. In the
transition of these names from tbe unwritten dia¬
lects of the Iroquois into our language, they lose
muck of their euphony, and the force of their ac¬
cent. It would therefore be difficult to judge of
the language itself from these specimens. That en¬
tire accuracy has been attained in the spelling of
these words is not expected. Indeed, many of their
elementary sounds, in the manner, and in the com¬
bination in which they use them, it is impossible to
express with our letters. But they are as nearly
accurate, as the frequent repetition of each name
by the native speaker, that the sound of each sylla¬
ble might be obtained, together with a careful re¬
vision of the whole, would enable the author to
make them. In the Appendix No. 1, will be found
a table, containing a hst of all the names upon the
map, arranged by counties, with the signification of
each. As the county lines are dotted on the map,
it wiU be easy to refer to any locality.
The trails ( Wd-d-gwen'-ne-yuh^) or highways of
travel pursued by our predecessors, are also traced
Ch. IL]
■upon tlie map. Among the number, will be found
the great central trail from the site of Albany to
that of Bujffalo, which is traced minutely from point
to point, throughout its whole extent.
It remains to notice the origin and signification of
the names of the several nations. After the formation
of the League, the Iroquois called themselves the Ho-
de'-no-sau-nee^ which signifies “ the people of the long
house.” It grew out of the circumstance, that they
likened their confederacy to a long house, having
partitions and separate fires, after their ancient
method of building houses, within which the several
nations were sheltered under a common roof Among
themselves they never had any other name. The
various names given to them at different periods
were entirely accidental, none of them being desig¬
nations by which they ever recognized themselves.
The Senecas called themselves the Nun-dorwd'-o-
no^ which signifies “ the great hill people.” Nurv-
da-wd'-o^ the radix of the word, means “a great
hill,” and the terminal syllables, o^no^ convey the
idea of “ people.” This was the name of their old¬
est village, situated upon a hill at the head of the
Canandaigua lake, near Naples, where, according to
the Seneca fable, they sprang out of the ground.
Gue' -Vrgweh-o-no^ the name of the Oayugas, signi¬
fies “ the people at the mucky land ;” the root of
the word literally meaning “ the mucky land.” It
doubtless referred to the marsh at the foot of the
Cayuga lake, near which their first settlement was,
in all probability, established.
[Book I.
O-nim-da'-ga^ the origin of the name of the On-
ondagas, signifies “ on the hills hence the name they
gave themselves, O-nun-dd! -ga-o-no^ is rendered “the
people on the hills.” It appears from various au¬
thors, that their principal village, at the era of their
discovery, was on one of the eminences overlooking
the Onondaga valley.
The Oneidas have been so long distinguished as
“ the people of the stone,” that it is perhaps ven¬
turesome to suggest a change. O-na-yote' -kd^ how¬
ever, the radix from which their name is derived,
signifies not only “ a stone,” but one of the species
known to us as granite. In the Seneca dialect, it
means this particular rock ; hence the propriety of
rendering literally their national name, O^Oryote'-
hd-o-^io^ “ the granite people.” ^
There is doubt about the signification of the
name of the Mohawks, Gdrne-d'-goro-^o^ from the
fact that the Oneidas, Onondagas and Senecas have
lost its meaning. But the Mohawks render the
root of the word, “the possessor of the fiint,”
without being able to give any further explanation.
It is to be observed, however, that the word as
given by the latter, Gd-ne-ga-Tid'-gd^ has one sylla¬
ble more than the corresponding word in Seneca,
which may account for the loss of its signification.
In a report enumerating our Indian nations, as¬
cribed to M. De J oncaire, is the following passage
bearing upon this subject : “ The Mohawks have for
1 The original Oneida Stone, now in the cemetery at Utica is said to be
a boulder of granite.
Ch. n.]
a device of the village a steel aiul a firntT ^ The
possession of such a novelty may have been, at an
early day, sufficient to change not only the name
of the village, but also of the nation.
The name of the Tuscaroras, Dus-gord -weh^ is ren¬
dered “ the shirt-wearing people and was a name
adopted before their emigration from Carolina,
and after the commencement of their intercourse
with the whites. All of the preceding names are
given in the Seneca dialect to preserve uniformity ;
as not only the terminations, but the radices them¬
selves are different in the several dialects.
The geographical names, the courses of the trails,
and the locations of the villages of the Iroquois,
will be more particularly considered in a subsequent
chapter.
1 Doc. Hist. N. Y. V. i. p. 22.
Book I, Chapter III
Interest IN OHE Predecessors. — The Hotter State. — Its Insti¬
tutions Transitory. — Origin of the League. — Sachemshifs. —
Hereditary Titles. — Council of the League. — Equality of
THE Sachems. — Chiefs. — BIilitary Chieftains. — Popular In¬
fluence. — Unity of the Race.
The social history and political transactions of
the Indian are as easily enveloped in obscurity,
as his footsteps through the forest are obliterated
by the leaves of autumn. Nation upon nation, and
race after race have sprung up and hastened onward
to their fall; and neither the first nor the last
could explain its origin, or number the years of its
duration.
From this general uncertainty of knowledge
which smTounds onr Indian races, we turn with
some degree of encouragement to the Iroquois, the
last in the order of succession which exercised do¬
minion over the territories out of which New York
was erected. We stand with them in many inter¬
esting relations. Having fiourished side by side
with our early population, the events of their de¬
cline became interwoven with om’ civil affaii’s ; and
having finally yielded up their sovereignty, from
the rulers of the land, they became dependent na-
Ch. hi.]
tions, dwelling under the protection of the govern¬
ment which displaced them.
To the Iroquois, by common consent, has been as¬
signed the highest position among the Indian races
of the continent living in the hunter state. In
legislation, in eloquence, in fortitude and in military
sagacity they had no equals. “No frightful soli¬
tude in the wilderness, no impenetrable recess in
the frozen north” was proof against their courage
and daring. Space offered no protection, distance
no shelter from their war parties, which ranged
equally the hills of New England, the declivities of
the Alleganies the prairies of the Mississippi, and
the forests of the Tennessee. In the establishment
of a League for the double purpose of acquiring
strength and securing peace, their capacity for civil
organization, and their wisdom in legislation were
favorably exhibited. During the expansion of the
power of the Iroquois, from the commencement of
the seventeenth to the middle of the eighteenth
centuries, there sprang up among them a class of
orators and chiefs, unrivalled among the red men
for eloquence in council, and bravery upon the war¬
path. In a word, the League of the Iroquois exhib¬
ited the highest development of the Indian ever
reached by him in the hunter state.
Many circumstances thus unite to invest its his¬
tory with permanent interest. An analysis of its
civil and domestic institutions will exhibit all the
elements of Indian society, and of Indian life,
throughout the republic. From the higher legisla-
56 STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE. [Book I
tion of tlie Iroquois, and the increased weight and
diversity of affairs under the League, there resulted
a fuller manifestation of the Indian character than
is to he found in any other race except the Aztec.
Their institutions contain the sum and substance of
those of the whole Indian family. While, how¬
ever, their political events have been diligently col¬
lected and arranged, the government which they
constructed, the social ties by which they were
bound together, and the motives and restraints by
which they were influenced have scarcely been
made subjects of inquiry, and never of extended
investigation. The League of the Iroquois, dis¬
membered and in fragments, still clings together in
the twilight of its existence, by the shreds of that
moral faith, which no political misfortunes could
loosen, and no lapse of years could rend asunder.
There are reasons for this spectacle, which no mere
alliance of nations can explain, and which history
has hitherto failed to reach. It is not the purpose
of this work to narrate their political events ; but
to inquire into the structure and spirit of the gov¬
ernment, and the nature of the institutions, under
and through which these historical results were
produced.
In entering upon such a theme of inquiry as an
Indian organization, there are some general con¬
siderations which press upon the attention, and
which are worthy of previous thought. By the
formation of societies and governments, mankind
are brought largely under the influence of the so-
Ch. in.]
cial relations, and their progress has been found to
be in exact proportion to the wisdom of the insti¬
tutions under which their minds were developed.
The passion of the red man for the hunter life has
proved to be a principle too deeply inwrought, to be
controlled by efforts of legislation. His govern¬
ment, if one was sought to be established, must
have conformed to this irresistible tendency of his
mind, this inborn sentiment ; otherwise it would
have been disregarded. The effect of this powerful
principle has been to enchain the tribes of North
America to their primitive state. Another effect
of this principle, and still more fatal to their politi¬
cal prosperity, is to be found in the repeated subdi¬
visions of the generic stocks of the continent, by
which all large accumulations of numbers and
power, in any race or nation, have been prevented.
Whenever a hunting-ground became too thickly pop¬
ulated for the easy subsistence of its occupants, a
band, under some favorite chief, put forth, like the
swarm from the parent hive, in quest of a new hab¬
itation ; and in course of time became independent.
We have here the true reason, why the red race
has never risen, or can rise above its present level.
The fewness of the generic stocks, the unlimited
number of independent tribes, and their past his¬
tory establish the correctness of this position.
It is obvious that the founders of the League
were aware of the enfeebling effects of these re¬
peated subdivisions, and sought, by the counter
principle of federation, to arrest the evil. They
3* ^
58 STRUCTURE OP THE LEAGUE. [Book L
aimed to knit the whole race together under such a
system of relationships, that, by its natural expan¬
sion, an Indian empire would be developed, of suffi¬
cient magnitude to control surrounding nations, and
thus secure an exemption from perpetual warfare.
We must regard it, therefore, as no ordinary achieve¬
ment, that the legislators of the Iroquois united the
several tribes into independent nations, and be¬
tween these nations established a perfect and har¬
monious union. And beyond this, that by a still
higher effort of legislation, they succeeded in so ad¬
justing the confederacy, that as a political fabric
composed of independent parts, it was adapted to
the hunter state, and yet contained the elements of
an energetic government.
It is another singular feature in connection with
Indian organizations, that their decline and fall are
sudden, and usually simultaneous. A rude shock
from without or within but too easily disturbs their
inter-relations ; and when once cast back upon the
predominating sentiment of Indian life, the hunter
inclination, a powerful nation rapidly dissolves into
a multitude of fragments, and is lost and forgotten
in the undistinguished mass of lesser tribes. But
the League of the Iroquois was subjected to a se¬
verer test. It went down before the Saxon, and
not the Indian race. If it had been left to resist
the pressure of surrounding nations, living, like the
Iroquois themselves, a hunter life, there is reason to
believe that it would have subsisted for ages ; and
perhaps, having broken the hunter spell, would
Ch. Ill]
have introduced civilization by an original and
spontaneous movement.
Of the Indian character it is an original peculiar¬
ity, that he has no desire to perpetuate himself in
the remembrance of distant generations, by monu¬
mental inscriptions, or other erections fabricated by
the art and industry of man. The Iroquois would
have passed away, without leaving a vestige or me¬
morial of their existence behind, if to them had
been intrusted the preservation of their name and
deeds. A verbal language, a people without a city,
a government without a record, are as fleeting as the
deer and the wild fowl, the Indian’s co-tenants of the
forest. With the departure of the individual, every
vestige of Indian sovereignty vanishes. He leaves
but the arrow-head upon the hillside, fit emblem
of his pursuits ; and the rude pipe, and ruder ves¬
sel entombed beside his bones — at once the record
of his superstition, and the evidence of his exist¬
ence. If the red man had any ambition for immor¬
tality, he would intrust his fame to the unwritten
remembrance of his tribe and race, rather than to
inscriptions on columns in his native land, or other
monument more durable than brass, which neither
wasting rain, nor raging wind, nor flight of time
could overthrow.^
1 Compare the sentiments of Peri¬
cles, —
A.vSpi}V yap tiri^avcSp Traaa yrj ratpo^^
KoX oi crnjXmv p6pov iv rp oiKua crjpaivEi
Iniypa^ri, dWa /cat h rp pi] irpoarjKovar)
aypafos pvripi] nap l/fdoro) yvwpris paX-
Xov f] Tov 'ipyov ivSiairaTai,
Thucyd., Lib. 2, c. 43.
with those of Horace, —
Exegi monumentuni aere perennius,
Regalique situ pyramidum altius ;
Quod non imber edax, non Aquiio impo>
tens
Possit diruere, aut innumerabiles
Annorum series, et fuga temporum.
Hor., Lib. 3, Ode 30.
[Book I.
Since this race must ever figure upon the opening
pages of our territorial history, and some judgment
he passed upon them, it becomes our duty to search
out their government and institutions, and to record
with impartiality their political transactions; lest,
in addition to the extinguishment of their Council
Fires, we subject their memory, as a people, to an
unjust and unmerited judgment.
Upon an extended examination of their institu¬
tions, it will become apparent, that the League was
established upon the principles, and was designed to
be but an elaboration, of the Family Eelationships.
These relations are older than the notions of society
or government, and are consistent alike with the
hunter, the pastoral and the civilized state. The
several nations of the Iroquois, united, constituted
one Family, dwelling together in one Long House ;
and these ties of family relationship were carried
throughout their civil and social system, from indi¬
viduals to tribes, from tribes to nations, and from
the nations to the League itself, and bound them
together in one common, indissoluble brotherhood.
In their own account of the origin of the League,
the Iroquois invariably go back to a remote and
uncertain period, when the compact between the
Five Nations was formed, its details and provisions
were settled, and those laws and institutions were
established, under which, without essential change,
they afterwards continued to flourish. If we may
trust their testimony, the system u»nder which they
confederated was not of gradual construction, under
Ch. Ill]
tlie suggestions of necessity ; "but was tlie result of one
protracted effort of legislation. Tlie nations were,
at tlie time, separate and hostile hands, although
of generic origin, and were drawn together in coun¬
cil to deliberate upon the plan of a League, which
a wise man of the Onondaga nation had projected,
and under which, he undertook to assure them, the
united nations could elevate themselves to a general
supremacy. Tradition has preserved the name of
Ba-gorno-we' -da as the founder of the League, and
the first lawgiver of the Ho-de‘-no-sau-nee. It like¬
wise points to the northern shore of the Gdm^un'-
toroh^ or Onondaga lake, as the place where the first
council-fire was kindled, around which the chiefs
and wise men of the several nations were gathered,
and where, after a debate of many days, its estab-
hshment was effected.
Their traditions further inform us, that the con¬
federacy, as framed by this council, with its laws,
rules, inter-relationships of the people and mode of
administration, has come down through many gen¬
erations to the present age, with scarcely a change ;
except the addition of an inferior class of rulers,
called chiefs, in contradistinction to the sachems,
and a modification of the law in relation to marriage.
Without entering here upon any inquiry to show
the probable accuracy of their traditions, it will be
sufficient to investigate the structure of the govern¬
ment, as it stood in its full vigor at the commence¬
ment of the last century, and to deduce the general
principles upon which it was founded.
02 STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUR [Book L
Tlie central government was organized and ad¬
ministered upon the same principles which regulated
that of each nation, in its sepai-ate capacity ; the
nations sustaining nearly the same relation to the
lieagne, that the American states bear to the Union.
In the former, several oligarchies were contained
within one, in the same manner as in the latter, sev¬
eral republics are embraced within one republic.
To obtain a general conception of the character of
a government, the ruler, or ruling body, or bodies,
as the case may be, would be the first object of at¬
tention ; and when their powei^ and tenure of of&ce
are discovered, the true index is obtained to the na¬
ture of the government. In the case of the Ho-del-
no-^aurnee^ the organization was externally so ob¬
scure, as to induce a universal belief that the rela¬
tions between ruler and people were simply those
of chief and follower — ^the earliest and lowest po¬
litical relation between man and man; while, in
point of fact, the Iroquois had emerged from this
primitive state of society, and had organized a sys¬
tematic government.
At the institution of the League, fifty permanent
sachemships were created, with appropriate names ;
and in the sachems who held these titles were vest¬
ed the supreme powers of the confederacy. To se¬
cure order in the succession, and to determine the
individuals entitled, the sachemships were made he¬
reditary, under limited and peculiar laws of descent.
The sachems themselves were equal in rank and au¬
thority, and instead of holding separate territorial
ch. ni.]
jurisdictions, theii’ powers were joint, and co^exten-
sive witli tlie League. As a safeguard against con¬
tention and fraud, eacli sacLem was “raised up,”
and invested vdtli Ms title by a council of all tbe
sachems, with suitable forms and ceremonies. Until
this ceremony of confirmation or investiture, no one
could become a ruler. He received, when raised
up, the name of the sachemship itself, as in the case
of titles of nobility, and so also did his successors,
from generation to generation. The sachemships
were distributed unequally between the five nations,
but without thereby giving to either a preponder¬
ance of political power. Mne of them were as¬
signed to the Mohawk nation, nine to the Oneida,
foui’teen to the Onondaga, ten to the Cayuga and
eight to the Seneca. The sachems, united, formed
the Council of the League, the ruling body, in which
resided the executive, legislative and judicial au¬
thority. It thus appears that the government of
the Iroquois was an oligarchy, taking the term, at
least, in the literal sense, “ the rule of the few
and, while more system is observable in this than
in the oligarchies of antiquity, it seems, also, bet¬
ter calculated, in its framework, to resist political
changes.
This specimen of Indian legislation is so remark¬
able, that a table of these sachemships, with their
division into classes, indicating certain inter-rela¬
tions, hereafter to be explained, is inserted in the
Seneca dialect.
[Book I.
Titles or Sachemships of the Iroquois, founded at the institu¬
tion of the League ; which have been borne bij their Sachems
in succession, from its formation to the present time.
I. 1. Da-ga-e 2. Ha-yo-went'-lia.^ 3. Ba-
ga-no-we'-da.^
n. 4. So-a-e-wa'-ali.^ 5. Ba-yo'-lio-go.® 6. 0-a-a'-
go -wA®
III. 7. Da-an-no-ga'-e-neli.’ 8. Sa-da'-ga-e-wa-deli.®
9. H^-da-weR'-se-ont-lia.®
O-NA-YOTEMvAH-O-NO, OR ONEIDA NATION.
I. 1. Ho-das'-lia-teli.“ 2. Ga-no-gweli'-yo-do.^^
3. Da-yo-Ra'-gwen-da.^
II. 4. So-no-sase7^ 5. To-no-a-g4'-o.^^ 6. Ha-de-
a-dnn-nent'-lia.^*
m. 7. Da-wa^a'-o-da-yo.^® 8. Ga-ne-a-dus'-lia-yeli.^^
9. Ho-wns'-Ra-da-o.^®
I. 1. To-do-da'-Ro.^® 2. To-nes'-sa-aR. 3. Ba-at-
ga-dose.^
1 This name signifies “Heutral, or
the Shield.” ® “Man who combs.”
Endless.” *“ Small speech.” ®“At
the forks.” ® " At the great river.”
7 “Drawing his horns.” ® “Even
tempered.” ® “ Hanging up rattles.”
The Sachems of the first class belong¬
ed to the Turtle Tribe, of the second
to the Wolf Tribe, and of the third to
the Bear Tribe.
“A man bearing a burden.”
“A man covere.d vnth cat tail
down.” 1* “ Opening through the
woods.” “ A long string.” “ A
man with a headache.” >5 “Swal¬
lowing himself.” “Place of the
echo.” 17 “ ^ar club on the ground.”
“ A man steaming himself.” The
sachems of the first class in the Onei¬
da nation belonged to the Wolf Tribe,
of the second to the Turtle Tribe, and
of the third to the Bear Tribe.
“ Tangled.” This was the most
dignified title in the list. It belonged
to the Bear Tribe. “ On the watch,”
Bear Tribe. This sachem aud the one
before him were hereditary counsel¬
lors of To-do-da/ -ho.
Ch. m.]
II. 4. Ga-nea-da'-j e-wake.^ 5. Ak-wa'-ga-yat.^ 6.
Da-a-yat'-gwa-e.
III. Y. Ho-no-we-M'-to.^
IV. 8. Ga-w^-M'-san-do.^ 9. Ha-e'-ko.* 10. Ho-
yo-ne-a'-ne.® 11. Sa-da'-qua-sek.”^
y. 12. Sa-go-ga-ka'.® 13. Ho-sa-ka-ko.® 14.
Ska-no'-wun-de.^®
I. 1. Da-ga'-Ayo.^ 2. Da-je-no'-da-wek-o. 3. Ga-
dA-gwa'-sa. 4. So-yo-wase'. 5. Ha-de-as'-yo-no.
II. 6. Da-yo-o-yo'-go. Y. Jote-ko-wek'-ko.^^ 8. De-
a-wate'-ko.
III. 9. To-da-e-ko'. 10. Des-ga'-kek.
I. 1. Ga-ne-o-di'yo.^^ 2. Sa-da-ga'-o-yase.^^
n. 3. Ga-no-gi'-e.^® 4. Sa-gek'-jo-t^a.^®
III. 5. Sa-de-a-no'-wus.^^ 6. Nis-ka-ne-a'-nent.^®
ly. Y. Ga-no-go-e-da'-we.^® 8. Do-iie-ko-ga'-wek.*“
Tkese titles or names were kereditary in tke
several trikes of wkick eack nation was composed.
Wken an individual was made a sackem, upon tke
^ This word signifies “ bitter body.”
The title belonged to the Snipe Tribe.
® Turtle Tribe. ® This sachem was the
hereditary keeper of the Wampum,
Wolf Tribe. * Deer Tribe. ® Deer
Tribe. ® Turtle Tribe. Bear Tribe.
® Signifies “ Having a glimpse,” Deer
Tribe. ® “ Large mouth,” Ttutle
Tribe. “ Over the creek,” Tui’tle
Tribe.
"Man frightened,” i® “Very
cold.” The tribes of the Cayuga
sachems were as follows: 1 Deer,
2 Heron, 3 and 4 Bear, 5 and *7 ‘Tur¬
tle, 8 Heron, 9 and 10 Snipe.
“ Handsome lake,” Turtle Tribe.
“Level heavens,” Snipe Tribe.
Turtle Tribe. “ Great forehead,”
Hawk Tribe. “Assistant,” Bear
Tribe. “ “ Palling day,” Snipe Tribe.
1* “Hair burned off,” Snipe Tribe.
“ Open door,” Wolf Tribe.
[Book 1
deatli or deposition of one of tlie fifty, liis name
was “ taken away,” and tlie name of tlie sacliemsliip
field fiy fiis predecessor was conferred upon fiim.
Tfius, upon tfie demise of tfie Seneca sacfiem, wfio
field tfie title Gayne-o-di'-yo^ a successor would be
raised up from tfie Turtle tribe, in wfiicfi tfie sacfiem-
sfiip was fiereditary, and after tfie ceremony of in¬
vestiture, tfie pei’son would be known among tfie
Iroquois only under tfie name of Gd-ne-o-di' ~yo.
Tfiese fifty titles, excepting two, fiave been field by
as many sacfiems, in succession, as generations fiave
passed away since tfie formation of tfie League.
Tfie Onondaga nation, being situated in a central
position, were made tfie keepers botfi of tfie Council
Brand, and of tfie "Wampum, in wfiicfi tfie structure
and principles of tfieir government, and tfieir laws
and treaties were recorded. At stated periods, usu¬
ally in tfie autumn of eacfi year, tfie sacfiems of tfie
League a^embled in council at Onondaga, wfiicfi
was in effect tfie seat of government, to legislate
for tfie common welfare. Exigencies of a public or
domestic cfiai-acter often led to tfie summoning of
tfiis council at extraordinary seasons, but tfie place
was not confined to Onondaga. It could be ap¬
pointed in tfie teriitory of eitfier of tfie nations,
under establisfied usages. Originally tfie object of
tfie general council was to raise up sacfiems to fill
vacancies. Li tfie course of time, as tfieir inter¬
course witfi foreign nations became more important,
it assumed tfie cfiarge of all matters wfiicfi concern¬
ed tfie League. It declared war and made peace,
Ch. HI]
sent and received embassies, entered into treaties
of alliance, regulated tbe affairs of subjugated na¬
tions, received new members into tbe League, ex¬
tended its protection over feeble tribes, in a word,
took all needful measures to promote tbeir prosper¬
ity, and enlarge tbeir dominion.
Notwithstanding tbe equality of rights, privileges
and powers between tbe members of this body of
sachems, there were certain discriminations between
them, which rendered some more dignified than
others. The strongest illustration is found in the
Onondaga sachem, To-do-dd' -lio^ who has always
been regarded as the most noble sachem of the
League. As an acknowledgment of his eminence,
two of the Onondaga sachems were assigned to him
as hereditary counsellors. The great respect and
deference paid by the Iroquois to this title, has led
to the vulgar error, that To-do-dd'-ho was the king
or civil head of the confederacy. He possessed, in
fact, no unusual or executive powers, no authority
which was not equally enjoyed by his compeers;
and when the hght of tradition is introduced, to
clear up the apparent anomaly, it will be seen, that
the reverence of the people was rather for the title
itself, than for the person who held it, as it was one
of their illustrious names. At the establishment of
the League, an Onondaga by the name of To-do-dd'-
ho had rendered himself a potent ruler, by the force
of his military achievements. Tradition says that
he had conquered the Cayugas and the Senecas. It
represents his head as covered with tangled serpents.
68 STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE. [Book I.
and Ms look, wken angiy, as so terrible, that wko-
ever looked upon bini fell dead. It relates, that
when tke League was formed, the snakes were
combed out of Ms bair by a Mobawk sacbem, wbo
was bence named Ha-yo-wenk-ba, “tbe man wbo
combs.” To-do-da' -Jio was reluctant to consent to tbe
new order of tbing's, as be would thereby be shorn
of bis absolute power, and be placed among a num¬
ber of equals. To remove these objections in some
measure, and to commemorate Ms magnanimity, tbe
first sacbemsMp was named after him, and was dig¬
nified above the otbei's by special marks of honor ;
but such, however, as were in perfect consistency
with an equal distiibution of powei-s among aU tbe
sachems as a body. Down to tbe present day,
among the Iroquois, this name is tbe pemonification
of heroism, of forecast, and of dignity of character ;
and this title has ever been regarded as more illus-
tiious than any other, in tbe catalogue of Ii’oquois
nobibty.
To several other of these ofiSlcers or names, par¬
ticular duties were affixed at tbe institution of tbe
League. For example: tbe Senecas were made tbe
door-keepers of the Long House ; and having im¬
posed upon Bo-m-Jho-gd'-weh, tbe eighth sacbem, tbe
duty of watching tbe door, they gave to Mm a’sub-
sacbem, or assistant, to enable Mm to execute this
trust. This sub-sachem was raised up at tbe same
time with bis superior, with tbe same forms and
ceremomes, and received tbe name or title which
was created simultaneously with that of tbe sacbem-
Ch. III.]
sMp. It was Ills duty to stand behind the sachem
on all public occasions, and to act as his runner or
attendant, as well as in the capacity of a counsellor.
Ho-no-we'Ua' -to^ the Onondaga sachem who was
made the keeper of the wampum, had also a sub¬
sachem, or assistant. Several other sachems, to
whom special responsibilities were confided, were
allowed sub-sachems, to enable them to fulfil their
duties, or perhaps as a mark of honor. All of these
special marks of distinction were consistent with
perfect equality among the sachems, as members of
one ruling body, in the administration of the afiairs
of the League. When their method of legislating
is considered, this fact will appear with greater dis¬
tinctness.
The several sachems, in whom, when united in
general council, resided the supreme powers of the
League, formed, when apart in their own territories,
the ruling bodies of their respective nations. When
assembled as the Council of the League, the power
of each sachem became co-extensive with the gov¬
ernment, and direct relations were created between
aU the people and each individual ruler ; but when
the sachems of a nation were convened in council, all
its internal affairs fell under their immediate cogni¬
zance; For all purposes of a local and domestic,
and many of a political character, the nations were
entirely independent of each other. The nine Mo¬
hawk sachems administered the affairs of that na¬
tion with joint authority, precisely in the same
manner as they did, in connection with their col-
70 STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE. [Book I
leagues, the affairs of the League at large. With
similar powem, the ten Cayuga sachems regulated
the domestic affaii'S of their nation.
As the sachems of each nation stood upon a per¬
fect equality, in authority and privileges, the meas¬
ure of influence was determined entirely by the
talents and address of the individual. In the coun¬
cils of the nation, which were of frequent occurrence,
aU business of national concernment was transact¬
ed; and, although the questions moved on such
occasions would be finally settled by the opinions
of the sachems, yet such was the spirit of the Iro¬
quois system of government, that the influence of
the inferior chiefs, the warriore, and even of the
women would make itself felt, whenever the subject
itself aroused a general public interest.
If we seek their warrant for the exercise of
power in the etymology of the word Ho-yar-na~go'~
wm\ by which the sachems were known as a cla^,
it will be found to intimate a check upon, rather
than an enlargement of their authority ; for it sig¬
nifies, simply, “ counsellor of the people,” a beauti¬
ful as well as appropriate designation of a ruler.
But within their sphere of action, their powers were
highly arbitrary in ancient times.
^ii'ext to the sachems, in position, stood the Chiefe,
an inferior class of rulei*s, the very existence of
whose office was an anomaly in the oligarchy of the
L'oquois. Many years after the establishment of
the I/eague, even subsequent to the commencement
of their intereoui’se with the whites, there arose a
ch. in.]
necessity for raising np tMs class. It was an inno¬
vation upon tlie original frame-work of tke confed¬
eracy, but it was demanded by circumstances wHcb
could not be resisted. Tbe office of chief Ha-seh-
no-waJ-neli^ which is rendered “ an elevated name,”
was made elective, and the reward of merit; but
without any power of descent, the title terminating
with the individual. No limit to the number was
established. The Senecas, still residing in New
York, number about 2,500, and exclusive of the
eight sachems, they have about seventy chiefs. At
first their powers were extremely limited, and con¬
fined to a participation in the local affairs of their
own nation, in the management of which they acted
as the counsellors and assistants of the sachems,
rather than in the capacity of rulers. But they
continued to increase in influence, with their multi¬
plication in numbers, and to encroach upon the
powers of the sachems, until at the present time,
when the League is mostly dismembered, and their
internal organization has undergone some essential
changes, they have raised themselves to an equality,
in many respects, with the sachems themselves.
After their election, they were raised up by a coun¬
cil of the nation ; but a ratification, by the general
council of the sachems, was necessary to complete
the investiture. The tenure of this office still con¬
tinues the same.
The powers and duties of the sachems and chiefs
were entirely of a civil character, and confined, by
their organic laws, to the affairs of peace. No
Y2 STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUR [Book I.
saclieirL could go out to war in Ms official capacity,
as a ci\dl ruler. If disposed to take the Avar-patk,
he laid aside his civil office, for the time being, and
became a common warrior. It becomes an impor¬
tant inquiry, therefore, to ascertain in whom the
military power was vested. The Iroquois had no
distinct class of war-chiefs, raised up and set apart
to command in time of war; neither do the sa¬
chems or cMefs appear to have possessed the power
of appointing such persons as they considered suit¬
able to the post of command. All military opera¬
tions were left entirely to private enterprise, and to
the system of voluntary service, the sachems seeking
rather to repress and restrain, than to encourage the
martial ardor of the people. Their principal war-
captains were to be found among the class called
chiefs, many of whom were elected to this office in
reward for their military achievements. The singu¬
lar method of warfare among the Iroquois renders
it extremely difficult to obtain a complete and satis¬
factory explanation of the manner in which their
warlike operations were conducted. Their whole
civil policy was averse to the concentration of power
in the hands of any single individual, but inclined
to the opposite principle of division among a num¬
ber of equals; and tMs policy they carried into
their military as well as through them civil organ¬
ization. Small bands were, in the first instance, or- ‘
ganized by individual leaders, each of which, if they
were afterwards qnited upon the same enterprise,
continued under its own captain, and the whole
Ch. ni] MILITARY CHIEFTAINS. YS
force, as well as tlie conduct of tlie expedition, was
under their joint management. They appointed no
one of their number to absolute command, but the
general direction was left open to the strongest will,
or the most persuasive voice.
As they were at war with all nations not in their
actual alliance, it was lawful for any warrior to or¬
ganize a party, and seek adventures wherever he
pleased to direct his steps. Perhaps some chief,
filled with martial ardor, planned an inroad upon
the Cherokees of the south; and, having given a
war-dance, and thus enlisted all who wished to share
the glory of the adventure, took the war-path at
once, upon his distant and perilous enterprise. In
such ways as this, many expeditions originated ; and
it is believed that a great part of the warlike trai^-
actions of the Iroquois were nothing more than per¬
sonal adventures, or the daring deeds of inconsider¬
able war-parties. Under such a state of things, a
favorite leader, possessed of the confidence of the
people from his warlike achievements, would be in
no want of followers, in the midst of a general war ;
nor would the League be in any danger of losing
the services of its most capable military comman¬
ders. To obviate the dangerous consequences of
disagreement, when the several nations were prose¬
cuting a common war, and their forces were united
into one body, an expedient was resorted to for se¬
curing unanimity in their plans, in the establishment
of two supreme military chieftaincies. The two chief¬
tains who held these ofiices were designed rather
[Book I.
to take tlie general supervision of tke affairs of war,
than tke actual command in tke field, altiiougli tkey
were not debarred from assuming it, if tbey were
disposed to do so. These war-chiefships were made
hereditary, like the sachemships, and vacancies were
filled in the same manner. When the Senecas, at
the institution of the League, were made the door¬
keepers, these chieftaincies were assigned to them,
for the reason, that being at the door, they would
fii’st take the war-path to drive back the invader.
The first of these was named Ta-wan'-ne-ars^ “ nee¬
dle breaker,” and the title made hereditary in the
Wolf tribe; the second was named So-no’ -so-wd^
“ great oyster shell,” and the office assigned to the
Turtle tribe. To these high chieftains, as the Iro¬
quois now affirm, was intrusted the supreme com¬
mand of the forces of the League, and the general
management of its military affairs.
During the Kevolution, Ta-yen-da-na'-ga, Joseph
Brant, commanded the war-parties of the Mohawks;
and, from his conspicuous position and the high
confidence reposed in him, rather than from any
claim advanced by himself, the title of military
chieftain of the League has been conceded to
him by some writers. But this is entirely a mis¬
take, or rather, a false assertion, which is expressly
contradicted by all of the Iroquois nations, includ¬
ing the Mohawks themselves.
It is, perhaps, in itself singular, that no religious
* Governor Blacksnake, who now
resides upon the Allegany reserva¬
tion, and is upwards of a hundred
years of age, now holds this title.
Ch. TIL]
Y5
functionaries were recognized in tlie League. This
is shown by the fact, that none were ever raised up
by the general council of sachems, to fill a sacer¬
dotal office. There was, however, a class in each na¬
tion, styled Ho-nun-de' “ keepers of the faith,”
who were regularly appointed to officiate at their
festivals, and to take the general supervision of
their religious afiairs.
With the officers above enumerated, the adminis¬
tration of the League was intrusted. The congress
of sachems took the charge of all those matters
which pertained to the public welfare. With them
resided the executive, legislative and judicial au¬
thority, so far as they were not possessed by the
people ; although their powers in many things ap¬
pear to have been rather advisory than executive.
The chiefs, from counsellors and intermediaries be¬
tween the sachems and the people, increased in in¬
fluence, until they became rulers with the sachems
themselves, thus widening and liberalizing the oli¬
garchy. In all matters of war, the power appears
to have resided chiefly with the people, and its pros¬
ecution to have been left to private adventure. If
several bands united, they had as many generals as
bands, who governed their proceedings by a council,
in which, as in civil affairs, unanimity was a funda¬
mental law. The two high military chieftains had
rather the planning and general management of the
campaign, than the actual conduct of the forces.
Running through their whole system of administra¬
tion, was a public sentiment, which gave its own
76 STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE. [Book I.
tendency to affairs, and illustrated to a remarkable
degree, tliat tke government rested upon tbe popu¬
lar will, and not upon tbe arbitrary sway of chiefs.
From whatever point the general features of the
League are scrutinized, it must be regarded as a
beautiful, as well as a remarkable structure — the
triumph of Indian legislation. When the posses¬
sions of the Iroquois were enlarged by conquest
followed by occupation, it was an expansion, and
not a dismemberment of the confederacy, one of its
leading objects being the absorption of contiguous
nations. To the Fries and to the Neuter nation, ac¬
cording to tradition, the Iroquois offered the alter¬
native of admission into the League, or extermina¬
tion; and the strangeness of this proposition will
disappear, when it is remembered, than an Indian
nation regards itself as at war with all others
not in actual alliance. Peace itself was one of the
ultimate objects aimed at by the founders of
this Indian oligarchy, to be secured by the admis¬
sion, or subjugation of surrounding nations. In
their progressive course, their empire enlarged, until
they had stretched their chain around the half of
our republic, and rendered their names a terror
from the hills of New England to the deepest seclu¬
sions upon the Mississippi ; when the advent of an¬
other race arrested their career, and prepared the
way for the gradual extinguishment of their council-
fires, and the desolation of the Long House.
With a mere confederacy of Indian nations, the
constant tendency would be to a rupture, from remote-
Ch. IIL]
ness of position and interest, and from the inherent
weakness of such a compact. In the case under con¬
sideration, something more lasting was aimed at, than
a simple union of the five nations, in the nature of
an alliance. A blending of the national sovereignties
into one government, was sought for and achieved
by these forest statesmen. The League made the
Ho-de' -no-sau-nee one people, with one government,
one system of institutions, one executive will. Yet
the powers of the government were not so entirely
centralized, that the national independencies disap¬
peared. This was very far from the fact. The
crowning feature of the League, as a political struc¬
ture, was the perfect independence and individu¬
ality of the national sovereignties, in the midst of a
central and embracing government, which present¬
ed such a cemented exterior, that its subdivisions
would scarcely have been discovered in the general
transactions of the League.
How these ends were attained we have yet to
examine. ,
The government sat lightly upon the people,
who, in effect, were governed but little. It secured
to each that individual independence, which the
Ho-de' -no-sa'Urniee knew how to prize as well as the
Saxon race; and which, amid all their political
changes, they have continued to preserve.
Book I, Chapter IV
Division into Tribes. — Family Relationships. — Descent in the
Female Line. — Degrees of Consanguinity. — Succession of
Sachems. — Names. — Nature of a Tribe. — Equality of the
Nations. — National Epithets. — Office of Chief Elective. —
Distinguished Men were Chiefs. — Stability of the Oli¬
garchy.
The di^dsion of a people into tribes is the most
simple organization of society. Each tribe being in
the nature of a family, the ties of relationship which
bind its individual members together are indispen¬
sable, until they are rendered unnecessary by the
adoption of a form of government, and the substi¬
tution of other ties, which answer the same ends of
protection and security.
When a people have long remained in the tribal
state, it becomes extremely difficult to remove all
traces of such organic divisions by the substitution
of new institutions. In the tribes of the Jews, this
position is illustrated. Among the Greeks also, es¬
pecially the Athenians, the traces of their original
divisions never entirely disappeared. Solon substi¬
tuted classes for tribes, but subsequently Cleisthenes
restored the tribes, retaining however the classes,
and increased the number ; thus perpetuating this
early social organization of the Athenians among
Ch. IV.]
tlieir civil institutions. Tlie Athenian tribe was a
group of families, with subdivisions; the Roman
tribes, established, by Romulus, the same. On the
other hand, the Jewish tribes embraced only the
lineal descendants of a common father ; and its indi¬
vidual members being of consanguinity, the tribe
itself was essentially different from the Grecian.
The Iroquois tribe was unlike them all. It was not
a group of families ; neither was it made up of the
descendants of a common father, as the father and
his child were never of the same tribe. In the se¬
quel, however, it will be discovered to be nearest
the Jewish ; differing from it, as from all other simi¬
lar institutions of the old world, chiefly in this, that
descent followed, in all cases, the female line.
The founders of the Iroquois Confederacy did not
seek to suspend the tribal divisions of the people,
to introduce a different social organization ; but on
the contrary, they rested the League itself upon the
tribes, and through them, sought to interweave the
race into one political family. A careful explora¬
tion of those tribal relationships which characterize
the political system of the Iroquois, becomes, there¬
fore, of importance. Without such knowledge as
this will afford, their government itself is wholly
unmeaning and inexplicable.
In each nation there were eight tribes, which were
arranged in two divisions, and named as follows :
Wolf, Bear, Beaver, Turtle.
Deer, Snipe, Heron, Hawk.
These are common to aU latitudes between Louisi-
[Book I.
ana and Montreal, and lienee in themselves are inca-
pable of throwing any light upon the land, or locality
in which the race originated.^ These names had
doubtless an emblematical signification, which reach¬
ed beyond the object itself. Of the origin of their
tribal divisions but little is known, and to it, per¬
haps, but little importance attaches. Tradition de¬
clares that the Bear and the Deer were the original
tribes, and that the residue were subdivisions. Evi¬
dence of the existence of seven of the tribes at the
establishment of the Oligarchy, is furnished in the
distribution of the Onondaga and Seneca sachem-
ships. The fourteen assigned to the former nation
were divided between the Wolf, Bear, Beaver, Tur¬
tle, Snipe and Deer tribes ; while the eight belong¬
ing to the latter, were given to the Wolf, Bear,
Turtle, Snipe and Hawk, to the exclusion of the
others, if they then existed ; and in these several
tribes they were made perpetually hereditary.
I Table exhibiting the scientific
names of the animals adopted by the
Iroquois as the emblems of their re¬
spective tribea It follows the classi-
Anhnal. Seneca Xame. Order.
Wolf. Tor-yoh'-ne. Carnivora.
Bear. Ne-o-ar'-gn-ye. Carnivora.
Beaver. Non-gar-ne'-e-ar-goh. Eodentia.
Turtle. Ga-ne-e-ar-teh-go'-wa. Chelonia.
Deer. Na-o'-geh. Ungulata.
Snipe. Doo-ese-doo-we'. Grail®.
Heron. Jo-as'-seh. Grail®.
Hawk. Os-sweh-ga-da-gii'-ah. Accipitres.
Horn Some doubt rests upon the
Heron and the Snipe concerning the
species. In the former case the
choice lies between the Ardea Can-
didissima, and the Ardea Leuce. In
fication employed in the Hat. History
of Hew York. The species have
been determined from careful descrip¬
tions obtained of the Senecas.
Family. Oenus. Species.
Canidae. Lupus. Occidentalis,
Ursidffi. Ureus. Americanus.
Castoridffi. Castor. Fiber.
Chelonid®. Chelonura. Serpentina.
Cervidae. Cervus. Virginianus.
Scolopacidffi. Totanus. Semipalmatus.
Ardeid®. Ardea. Candidissima.
Falconid®. Falco. Columbarius.
the latter, the large number of the
species introduces a difficulty. The
Semipalmatus corresponds most near¬
ly with the description of the bird.
Ch. IV.]
The division of the people of each nation into
eight tribes, whether pre-existing, or perfected at
the establishment of the Confederacy, did not ter¬
minate in its objects with the nation itselfd It be¬
came the means of effecting the most perfect union
of separate nations “ ever devised by the wit of
man” In effect, the Wolf tribe was divided into
five parts, and one fifth of it placed in each of the
five nations. The remaining tribes were subjected
to the same division and distribution. Between
those of the same name — or in other words, between
the separated parts of each tribe — there existed a
tie of brotherhood, which linked the nations to¬
gether with indissoluble bonds. The Mohawk of
the Wolf tribe recognized the Seneca of the
Wolf tribe as his brother, and they were bound
to each other by the ties of consanguinity. In hke
manner the Oneida of the Turtle or other tribe
received the Cayuga or Onondaga of the same tribe,
as a brother, and with a fraternal welcome. This
relationship was not ideal, but was founded upon
actual consanguinity. In the eyes of an Iroquois,
every member of his own tribe, in whatever nation,
was as much his brother or his sister as if children
* The Senecas had eight tribes, thfe the State Department, these titles
Cayugas eight, the Tuscaroras seven, appear as their only social divisions,
the Onondagas eight, the Oneidas But by the original laws of the League,
three, and the Mohawks three. The neither of these tribes could inter¬
descendants of the ancient Oneidas marry. Hence there appears to have
and Mohawks affirm that their ances- been a necessity for the existence
tors never had but three tribes, the originally of the remaining tribes, or
Wolf, Bear and Turtle. On old some of them, to admit of the verity
treaties with these nations aow in of this law in relation to marriage.
4*
[Book L
of tlie same motlier. This cross-relationsliip between
the tribes of the same name, and which was stronger,
if possible, than the chain of brotherhood between the
scvei'al tribes of the same nation, is still preserved in
all its original strength. It doubtless furnishes the
chief reason of the tenacity with which the fragments
of the League still cling together. If either of the five
nations had wished to cast off the alliance, it must
also have broken this bond of brotherhood. Had
the nations fallen into collision, it would have turn¬
ed Hawk tribe against Hawk tribe, Heron against
Heron, brother against brother. The history of the
Ho-de'-no->8avrnee exhibits the wisdom of these or¬
ganic provisions ; for, during the long period through
which the League subsisted, they never fell into an¬
archy, nor even approximated to dissolution from
internal disorders.
With the progress . of the inquiry, it becomes
more apparent that the Confederacy was in effect a
League of Tribes. With the ties of kindred as its
principle of union, the whole race was interwoven
into one great family, composed of tribes in its first
subdivision, (for the nations were counterparts of
each other;) and the tribes themselves, in their
subdivisions, composed of parts of many households.
Without these close inter-relations, resting, as many
of them do, upon the strong impulses of nature, a
mere alliance between the Iroquois nations would
have been feeble and transitory.
In this manner was constructed the League of the
Ho-de'-nosa^ee^ in itself an extraordinary speci-
Ch. IV.]
men of Indian legislation. Simple in its foundation
upon tlie family relationsliips, effective in the lasting
vigor inherent in the ties of kindred, and perfect
in its success, in achieving a permanent and harmo¬
nious union of the nations, it forms an enduring
monument to that proud and progressive race, who
reared under its protection a wide-spread Indian
sovereignty.
All the institutions of the Iroquois have regard
to the division of the people into tribes. Originally
with reference to marriage, the Wolf, Bear, Beaver,
and Turtle tribes, being brothers to each other,
were not allowed to intermarry. The four opposite
tribes, being also brothers to each other, were like¬
wise prohibited from intermarrying. Either of the
first four tribes, however, could intermarry with
either of the last four, the relation between them
being that of cousins. Thus Hawk could intermarry
with Bear or Beaver, Heron with Turtle ; but not
Beaver and Turtle, nor Deer and Deer. Whoever
violated these laws of marriage incurred the deepest
detestation and disgrace. In process of time, how¬
ever, the rigor of the system was relaxed, until
finally the prohibition was confined to the tribe of
the individual, which, among the residue of the
Iroquois, is stiU religiously observed. They can
now marry into any tribe but their own. Under
the original as well as modern regulation, the hus¬
band and wife were of different tribes. The chil¬
dren always followed the tribe of the mother.
As the whole Iroquois system rested upon the
[Book L
tribes as an organic division of tbe peoplej it was
very natural that the separate rights of each should
be jealonsly guai*ded. l^ot the least remarkable
among their institutions, was that which confined
the transmission of all titles, rights and property
in the female line to the exclusion of the male. It
is strangely imlike the canons of descent adopted
by civilized nations, but it secured several important
objects. If the Deer tribe of the Cayugas, for ex¬
ample, received a sachemship at the original distri¬
bution of these offices, the descent of such title being
limited to the female line, it could never pass out of
the tribe. It thus became instrumental in giving
to the tribe individuality. A still more marked re¬
sult, and perhaps a leading object of this enactment
was the perpetual disinheritance of the son. Being
of the tribe of his mother foimed an impassable
barrier^against him ; and he could neither succeed
his father as a sachem, nor inherit from hini even
his medal, or his tomahawk. The inheritance, for
the protection of tribal rights, was thus directed
from the lineal descendants of the sachem, to his
brothers, or his sisters’ children, or, under certain cir¬
cumstances, to some individual of the tribe at large ;
each and aU of whom were in his tribe, while his
children, being in another tribe, as before remarked,
were placed out of the line of succession.
By the operation of this principle, also, the cer¬
tainty of descent in the tribe, of their principal
chiefs, was secured by a rule infallible ; for the child
must be the son of its mother, although not neces-
Ch. IV.]
sarily of its motlier’s Imsband. If the purity of
blood be of any moment, the lawgivers of the Iro¬
quois established the only certain rule the case ad¬
mits of, whereby the assurance might be enjoyed
that the ruling sachem was of the same family or
tribe with the first taker of the title.
The Iroquois mode of computing degrees of con¬
sanguinity was unlike that of the civil or canon
law ; but was yet a clear and definite system. No
distinction was made between the lineal and collat¬
eral lines, either in the ascending or descending
series. To understand this subject, it must be borne
in mind, that of the grandparents one only, the
maternal grandmother, necessarily was, and of the
parents only the mother, and, in the descending
line, only the sisters’ children could be of the same
tribe with the propositus, or individual from whom
the degrees of relationship were reckoned. By
careful attention to this rule, the reasons of the
following relationships will be readily perceived.
The maternal grandmother and her sisters were
equally grandmothers ; the mother and her sisters
were equally mothers; the children of a mother’s
sisters were brothers and sisters ; the children of a
sister were nephews and nieces; and the grand¬
children of a sister were his grandchildren. These
were the chief relatives within the tribe, though
not fully extended as to number. Out of the
tribe, the paternal grandfather and his brothers
w^ere equally grandfathers ; the father and his broth¬
ers equally fathers ; the father’s sisters were aunts,
[Book L
wMle, in tiie tribe, tbe motber’s brothers were
uncles; the father’s sister’s children were cousins
as in the civil law ; the children of these cousins
were nephews and nieces, and the children of these
nephews and nieces were his grandchildren, or the
grandchildren of the propositus. Again : the chil¬
dren of a brother were his children, and the grand¬
children of a brother were his grandchildren;
also, the children of a father’s brother were his
brothers and sisters, instead of cousins, as under
the civil law ; and lastly, theii’ children were his
grandchildren.
It was the leading object of the Iroquois law of
descent, to merge the collateral in the lineal line, as
sufficiently appears in the above outline. By the
civil law, every departure from the common ances¬
tor in the descendmg series, removed the collateral
from the lineal ; while, by the law under considera¬
tion, the two lines were finally brought into one.^
Under the civU law mode of computation, the de¬
grees of relationship become too remote to be traced
among collaterals ; while, by the mode of the Bo-
quois, none of the collaterals were lost by remote¬
ness of degree. The number of those linked to¬
gether by the nearer family ties was largely multi-
> The following are the names of
the seTeral d^ees of relaticmship
Hoc-sote',
Ha'Huh,
Nob-yeh',
Ho-ah'-wtik,
Go^'-wuk,
Ka-ya'-da,
Grandfather.
Grandmother.
Father.
Mother.
Son.
recognized among the Ho-de'-no-satt-
nee, in the language of the Senecas ; —
Hoe-no'-seh, Unde.
Ah-geh'-huc, Aunt.
Ha-yan-wan-deh', Nephew.
K*-yan-wan-deh', Niece.
Da-ya-gwa -dan-no-da, Brothers and Sisters.
Ah-gare'-seh, Consm.
Grsndchildrmi.
Ch. IV.] SUCCESSION OF SACHEMS. 87
plied by preventing, in tbis manner, tbe subdivision
of a family into collateral branches. These rela¬
tionships, so novel and original, did not exist simply
in theory, but were actual, and of constant recogni¬
tion, and lay at the foundation of their political, as
well as social organization.
The succession of the rulers of the League is one
of the most intricate subjects to be met with in the
political system of the Iroquois. It has been so
difficult to procure a satisfactory exposition of the
enactments by which the mode of succession was
regulated, that the sachemships have sometimes
been considered elective, at others as hereditary.
Many of the obstacles which beset the inquiry are
removed by the single fact, that the title of sachem
was absolutely hereditary in ^he tribe to which it
was originally assigned, and could never pass out
of it, but with its extinction. How far these titles
were hereditary in that part of the family of the
sachem who were of the same tribe with himself,
becomes the true question to consider. The sa¬
chem’s brothers, and the sons of his sisters were of
his tribe, and, consequently, in the line of succes¬
sion. Between a brother and a nephew of the de¬
ceased, there was no law which established a prefer¬
ence; neither between several brothers, on the
one hand, and sons of several sisters on the other,
was there any law of primogeniture; nor, finally,
was there any positive law, that the choice should
be confined to the brothers of the deceased ruler,
and the descendants of his sisters in the female line.
[Book L
until all tliese should fail, before a selection could
be made from the tribe at large. Hence, it appears,
so fai’ as positive enactments were concerned, that
the office of sachem was hereditary in the partic-
ulai' tribe in which it ran; while it was elective,
as between the male members of the tribe itself.^
In the absence of laws, designating with cer¬
tainty the individual upon whom the inheritance
should fall, custom would come in and assume the
force of law, in directing the manner of choice,
from among a number equally eligible. Upon the
decease of a sachem, a tribal council assembled to de¬
termine upon his successor. The choice usually fell
upon a son of one of the deceased ruler’s sisters, or
upon one of his brothers — in the absence of physi¬
cal and moral objections ; and this preference of one
of his near relatives would be suggested by feelings
of respect for his memory. Infancy was no obsta¬
cle, it involving only the necessity of setting over
the infant a guai’dian, to discharge the duties of a
sachem until he attained a suitable age. It some¬
times occurred that all the relatives of the deceased
were set aside, and a selection was made from the
tribe generally; but it seldom thus happened, un¬
less from the great unfitness of the near relatives
of the deceased.
* Laws of successioQ somewhat scheme of election, however defective,
simiiar existed among the Aztecs, argues a more refined and calculating
“ The sovereign was selected from the policy than was to have been ex-
brothers of the deceased prince, pr, pected from a barbarous nation.”—
in default of ^em, from his nephews. Prescott’s Conquest of Mexico, voL i.
thus the dection was always restricted p. 23.
to the same family. * * * Thg
Ch. IV.]
Wlien the individual was finally determined, the
nation summoned a council, in the name of the de¬
ceased, of all the sachems of the League ; and the
new sachem was raised up by such council, and in¬
vested with his ofilce.
In connection with the power of the tribes to
designate the sachems, should be noticed the equal
power of deposition. If, by misconduct, a sachem
lost the confidence and respect of his tribe, and be¬
came unworthy of authority, a tribal council at
once deposed him ; and, having selected a successor,
summoned a council of the League to perform the
ceremony of his investiture.
Still further to illustrate the characteristics of the
tribes of the Iroquois, some reference to their mode
of bestowing names would not be inapt.^ Soon
after the birth of an infant, the near relatives of the
same tribe selected a name. At the first subsequent
council of the nation, the birth and name were pub¬
licly announced, together with the name and tribe
of the father, and the name and tribe of the mother.
In each nation the proper names were so strongly
marked by a tribal peculiarity, that the tribe of the
individual could usually be determined from the
name alone. Making, as they did, a part of their
language, they were all significant. When an in¬
dividual was raised up as a sachem, his original
name was laid aside, and that of the sachemship
^ Like the ancient Saxons, the Iro- individual was often changed at dif-
quois had neither a prenomen, nor a ferent periods of life, as when the
cognomen ; but contented themselves youth became a warrior ; and again,
with a single name. The name of an at the approach of age.
[Book L
itself assumed. In like manner, at tlie raising
up of a ckief, tke council of tke nation wkick per¬
formed tke ceremony, took away tke former name
of tke incipient cMef and assigned kim a new one,
perhaps, like Napoleon’s titles, commemorative of
the event wMck led to its bestowment. Thus, when
the celebrated Eed- Jacket was elevated by election
to the dignity of a chief, his original name, O-te-ti-
dn'4^ “ always ready,” was taken from him, and in
its place was bestowed Sd^go-ye-wdt’ -lid^ “keeper
awake,” in allusion to the powers of his eloquence.
Each tribe in the nation thus formed a species of
separate community. The members were all of
consanguinity, and their relationships easily traced.
In like manner those of the same tribe in each of
the other nations were their consanguinii, and their
relationships, near and remote, were also traceable.
As two tribes were necessarily joined in each
family, there was a perfect diffusion of tribes
throughout the nation, and throughout the League.
In this manner the race of the Iroquois, although
consisting of different nations, was blended into
one people. The League was in effect established,
and rested for its stability, upon the natural faith
of kindred.
It now remains to define a tribe of the Ho-de'-no-
smMiee. From the preceding considerations it suffi¬
ciently appears, that it was not, like the Grrecian
and Koman, a circle or group of families ; for two
tribes were necessarily represented in every family ;
neither, like the Jewish, was it constituted of the
Ch. IV.]
lineal descendants of a common father; on the
contrary, it distinctly involved the idea of descent
from a common mother ; nor has it any resemblance
to the Scottish clan, or the Canton of the Switzer.
In the formation of an Iroquois tribe, a portion
was taken from many households, and bound to¬
gether by a tribal bond.
^ The wife, her children, and her descendants in
the female line, would, in perpetuity, be linked with
the destinies of her own tribe ; while the husband,
his brothers and sisters, and the descendants of the
latter, in the female line, would, in like manner, be
united to another tribe, and held by its affinities.
Herein was a bond of union between the several
tribes of the same nation, corresponding, in some
degree, with the cross-relationship founded upon
consanguinity, which bound together the tribes of
the same emblem in the different nations.
The Iroquois claim to have originated the idea of
a division of the people into tribes, as a means of
creating new relationships by wffiich to bind the
people more firmly together. It is further asserted
by them, that they forced, or introduced this social
organization among the Cherokees, the Chippeways,
(Massasaugas) and several other Indian nations, with
whom, in ancient times, they were in constant inter¬
course. The fact that this division of the people of
the same nation into tribes does not prevail gener¬
ally among our Indian races, favors the assertion of
the Iroquois. On the other hand, the laws of de¬
scent, at least of the crown, among the Aztecs,
[Book I.
dimly shadows forth the existence of a similar so¬
cial organization, which may have been reproduced
among the Iroquois, or preserved through a remote
affiuity of blood. At all events, it was the life and
strength of the League.
Of the comparative value of these institutions,
when contrasted with those of civilized countries,
and of their capability of elevating the race, it is •
not necessary here to inquire. It was the boast of
the Iroquois that the great object of their con¬
federacy was peace — to break up the spirit of per¬
petual warfare, which had wasted the red race from
age to a^e. Such an insight into the true end of aU
legitimate government, by those who constructed this
tribal league, excites as great surprise as admiration.
It is the highest and the noblest aspect in which
human institutions can be viewed ; and the thought
itself— universal peace among Indian races possible
of attainment — was a ray of intellect from no or¬
dinary mind. To consummate such a purpose, the
Iroquois nations were to be concentrated into one
political fraternity 5 and in a manner effectively to
prevent offehoots and secessions. By its natural
growth, this fraternity would accumulate sufficient
power to absorb adjacent nations, moulding them,
successively, by affiliation, into one common family.
Thus, in its nature, it was designed to be a progres¬
sive confederacy. What means could have been
employed with greater promise of success than the
stupendous system of relationships, which was
fabricated through the division of the Ho-de'-no-
Ch. IV.]
sav^ee into tribes? It was a system sufficiently
ample to enfold tbe whole Indian race. Unlimited
in their capacity for extension, inflexible in their
relationships, the tribes thus interleagued would
have suffered no loss of unity by their enlargement,
nor loss of strength by the increasing distance be¬
tween their council-fires. The destiny of this
League, if it had been left to work out its own re-
• suits among the red races exclusively, it is impos¬
sible to conjecture. With vast capacities for en¬
largement, and remarkable durability of structure,
it must have attained a great elevation, and a
general supremacy.
It is apparent from the examination of such evi¬
dences as can be discovered, that the several Iro¬
quois nations occupied positions of entire equality
in the League, in rights, privileges and obligations.
Such special immunities as were granted to either,
must be put down to the chances of location, and
to the numerical differences at the institution of the
Confederacy ; since they neither indicate an inten¬
tion to establish an unequal alliance, nor exhibit the
exercise of privileges by either nation, inconsistent
with the principle of political equality, on which
the League was founded.
The sources of infoi-mation, from which this con¬
clusion is drawn, are to be found in the mass of Iro¬
quois traditions, and in the structure of the Con¬
federacy itself. Those traditions which reach be¬
yond the formation of the League, are vague and
unreliable, while all such as refer to its establish-
[Book L
ment assume a connected and distinctive form. It
follows that confidence may be reposed in such in¬
ferences as are derived from these traditions, and
corroborated by the internal structure of the gov¬
ernment, and by the institutions of the League.
There were provisions apparently vesting in cer¬
tain nations superior authority, which it is desirable
to introduce and explain. The most prominent was
the unequal distribution of sachemships, indicating
an unequal distribution of power : the Onondagas,
for example, having fourteen sachems, while the
Senecas, by far the most powerful nation in the Con¬
federacy, were entitled to but eight. It is true,
ceteris paribus^ that a larger body of sachems would
exercise a greater infiuence in general council ; but
it will appear, when the mode of deciding questions
is considered, that it gave no increase of power, for
each nation had an equal voice, and a negative upon
the others.
By another organic provision, the custody of the
“ Council Brand,” and also of the “ Wampum,” into
which the laws of the League “ had been talked,”
was given by hereditary grant to the Onondagas.
This is sufficiently explained by their central posi¬
tion, which made the council-fire in the Onondaga
valley, in effect, the seat of government of the
League. It was equally a convenience to all, and
does not necessarily involve a preference enforced
by superior power.
The To-do-dd'-ho was likewise among the Onon¬
daga sachems. Upon this point, it has heretofore
Ch. IV.]
Ibeen stated, that the higher degree of consideration
attached to this title resulted exclusively from the
exalted estimation in which the original To-do-da' -Jio
was held, on account of his martial prowess and
achievements.
An apparent inequality between the nations of
the League is also observable in the award of the
two highest military chieftains to the Senecas. It
will be sufficient, on this difficult feature in the sys¬
tem of the Iroquois, to note, that when they con¬
structed their political edifice, the Long House, with
its door opening upon the west, they admitted the
supposition that all hostile onsets were to be ex¬
pected from that direction; and on placing the
Senecas as a perpetual shield before its western
portal, these war-captains were granted, as among
the means needful for its protection.
The Mohawks were receivers of tribute from
subjugated nations. This hereditary privilege must
be placed upon the same footing with the preceding.
It may, perhaps, indicate that the nations upon their
borders were in subjection.
Unequal terms in a Confederacy of independent
nations would not be expected. True wisdom would
dictate the principle of equality, as the only certain
foundation on which aTdurable structure could be
erected. That such was the principle adopted by
the legislators of the Iroquois, is evinced by the
equality of rights and immunities subsisting between
the sachems of the League. Their authority was
not limited to their own nation, but was co-extensive
[Book I.
witli tlie Confederacy. Tlie Cayuga sachem, while
in the midst of the Oneidas, could enforce from
them the same obedience that was due to him from
his own people ; and when in general council with
his compeers, he had an equal voice in the disposal
of all business which came before it. The special
privileges enumerated, and some others which exist¬
ed, were of but little moment, when compared with
the fact that the nations were independent, and
that each had an equal participation in the admin¬
istration of the government.
At the epoch of the League, the several nations
occupied the territory between the Hudson and the
Genesee, and were separated by much the same in-
tei’nal boundaries, as at the period when they yielded
up their sovereignty. From geographical position,
or from relative importance, or yet, for the mere
purpose of establishing between the nations rela¬
tionships similar to those existing between the tribes,
certain rules of precedence, and national ties, were
constituted between them. The nations were di¬
vided into two classes, or divisions ; and when as¬
sembled in general council were arranged upon op¬
posite sides of the “ council-fire.” On the one side
stood the Mohawks, Onondagas and Senecas, who,
as nations, were regarded as ,1br others to each other,
but as fathers to the other nations. Upon the other
side were the Oneidas and Cayugas, and at a subse¬
quent day, the Tuscaroras, who, in like manner,
were brother nations to each other, but children to
the first three. These divisions were in harmony
Ch. IV.]
with their system of relationships, or more properly
formed a part of it. They may have secured for the
senior nations increased respect, hut they involved
no idea of dependence in the junior, or inequality
in civil rights.
When the nations were enumerated, the Mohawks
were placed first, hut for what reason is not pre¬
cisely understood. In the councils of the Confede¬
racy they were styled Da-ga-e-o' -gd^ which became
their national epithet. It was a term of respect,
and signifies “ neutral,” or, as it may he rendered,
“ the shield.” Its origin is lost in obscurity.
The Onondagas were placed next in the order
of precedence, and were addressed in council by the
appellation Ho-dd -samrno-ge-td. This term signifies
“ name-hearer,” and was conferred in commemora¬
tion of the circumstance, that tie Onondagas be¬
stowed the names upon the fifty original sachems.
This was a privilege of some moment, as these
“ names” were to descend from generation to gene¬
ration, upon the successive rulers of the Ho-de'-no-
sau-nee.
Next in order stood the Senecas, justly proud of
their national designation, Ho-nan-ne-Jio'-ont^ or
“ the door-keeper.” To them, as elsewhere remark¬
ed, belonged the hereditary guardianship of the
door of the Long House.
The Oneidas occupied the fourth place in the Iro¬
quois order of precedence, and originally had no
appellation by which they were distinguished. At
a subsequent and quite modern period, the epithet
[Book I.
Ne-ar-de-on-dar-go'^ar^ or “ Great Tree ” was confer¬
red upon tliem by tbeir confederates. This name was
seized upon from some occurrence at a treaty with
the people of Wastow^ or Boston.
Of the five original nations, the Cayugas were
placed last in the enumeration. They were desig¬
nated in council by the appellation, So-nus'-7io-gwd’
to-war^ signifying “ Great Pipe.” Tradition refers
this epithet to the incident, that the leading Cayuga
chief in attendance at the council which established
the League smoked a pipe of unusual dimensions
and workmanship.
The admission of the Tuscaroras having been
long subsequent to the formation of the League,
they were never received into an equal alliance with
the other nations. After their disastrous overthrow,
and expulsion from North Carolina, they turned to¬
wards the country of the Iroquois, and were ad¬
mitted about the year 1Y15, as the sixth nation, into
the Confederacy. But they were never allowed to
have a sachem, who could sit as an equal in the
council of sachems. The five nations were unwil¬
ling to enlarge the number of sachemships founded
at the institution of the League. For purposes of
national government, however, they were organized
like the other nations, with similar tribes, relation¬
ships, laws and institutions. They also enjoyed a
nominal equality in the councils of the League, by
the courtesy of. the other five, and their sachems
were “ raised up” with the same ceremonies. They
were not dependent, but were admitted to as full
Oh. IV.]
equality as could be granted tbem, without enlarg¬
ing the frame-work of the Confederacy. In the
councils of the League, they had no national desig¬
nation.
At the establishment of the Confederacy, the
office of chief, Ha-seli-no-waJ “ an elevated name,”
was entirely unknown among the Iroquois. Their
traditions, as elsewhere stated, affirm that this title
was instituted long subsequent to the foundation of
the fifty sachemships, and the full adjustment of the
League. The necessity in which this office had its
origin, and the illustration which it furnishes of a
position elsewhere advanced, that all political in¬
stitutions, as they unfold, progress from monarchy
towards democracy, leads to the presentation of this
subject in this place.
When the power of the So-de'-no-sau-nce began to
develop, under the new system of oligarchies within
an oligarchy, there sprang up around the sachems a
class of warriors, distinguished for enterprise upon
the war-path, and eloquence in council, who de¬
manded some participation in the administration of
public affairs. The serious objections to the en¬
largement of the number of rulers, involving, as it
did, changes in the frame- work of the government,
for a long period enabled the sachems to resist the
encroachment. In the progress of events, this class
became too powerful to be withstood, and the sa¬
chems were compelled to raise them up in the sub¬
ordinate station of chiefs. The title was purely
elective, and the reward of merit. Unlike the sa-
100 STRUCTUEE OF THE LEAGUE. [Book I.
cliemsliips, tlie name was not hereditary in the tribe
or family of the individual, but terminated with the
chief himself ; unless subsequently bestowed by the
tribe upon some other person, to preserve it as one
of their illustrious names. These chiefs were origin¬
ally invested with very limited powers their prin¬
cipal office being that of advisers and counsellors
of the sachems. Having thus obtained a foothold
in the government, this class, to the number of
which there was no limit, gradually enlarged their
influence, and from generation to generation drew
nearer to an equality with the sachems themselves.^
By this innovation the government was liberalized,
to the sensible diminution of the power of the sa¬
chems, which, at the institution of the League, was
extremely arbitrary.
It is a singular fact, that none of the sachems of
the L-oquois, save Logan,® have ever become distin¬
guished in history ; although each of the fifty titles
or sachemships have been held by as many indi¬
viduals, as generations have passed away since the
foundation of the Confederacy. If the immortality
of men, “ worthy of praise,” is committed to the
guardianship of the Muse —
“ Dignum laude virum Musa vetat mori
^ At the present time among the
dismembered fragments of the Iro¬
quois nations, the chiefs are found to
be nearly, if not in all respects, upon
an equality with the sachems, al¬
though the offices are stiU held by
different tenures.
* Logan was one of the ten Cayu¬
ga sachems, but which of the ten
names or sachemships he held, is not
at present ascertamed. His father,
Shikellimus or Shikalimo, who is usu¬
ally mentioned as a Cayuga sachem,
was but a chief.
Ch.iv.] distinguished men were chiefs.
— the muse of tradition, if such a conception may
be indulged, has been enabled, out of this long line
of sachems, to record the deeds of none, save the
military achievements of the first To-do-da! -ho ^ the
wisdom in legislation of the first Da-gorno-we'-ddj^
and the sacred mission of G&m-o-di! -yo^ who pre¬
tended to have received a revelation from the Great
Spirit. The residue have left behind them no re¬
membrances conferring special dignity upon the sa-
chemships entrusted to their keeping.
The celebrated orators, wise men, and military
leaders of the Ho-de' -no-sau-nee^ are all to be found
in the class of chiefs. One reason for this may exist
in the organic provision which confined the duties
of the sachems exclusively to the affairs of peace ;
and another may be, that the office of chief was be¬
stowed in reward of public services, thus casting it
by necessity upon the men highest in capacity
among them. In the list of those chiefs who have
earned a place upon the historic page, as well as in
the “ unwritten remembrance” of their tribe and
race, might be enumerated many who have left
behind them a reputation, which will not soon fade
from the minds of men.
^ Da-ga-no-we'-dd, the founder of but was adopted by the Mohawks
the confederacy, and Hd-yo-went'-hd, and raised up as one of their sa-
his speaker, through whom he laid chems. Haring an impediment in
his plans of government before the his speech, he chose Ha-yo-wenf -Ad for
council which framed the League, his speaker. They were both un-
were both “ raised up” among the wilhng to accept office, except upon
fifty original sachems, and in the Mo- the express condition, that their sa-
hawk nation ; but after their decease chcmships should ever remain vacant
these two saehemships were left va- after their decease. These are the
cant, and have since continued so. two most illustrious names among the
Bg-gd-no-we'-dd was an Onondaga, Iroquois.
102 STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE. [Book 1
By the institution of this office, the stability of
the government was increased rather than diminish¬
ed. In their own figurative enunciation of the idea,
the chiefs served as braces in the Long House — an
apt expression of the place they occupied in their
political structure. It furnished a position and a
reward for the ambitious, and the means of allay¬
ing discontent, without changing the ruling body.
In this particular, the oligarchy of the Iroquois ap¬
pears to have enjoyed some superiority over those
of antiquity.
“In aristocratical governments,” says Montesquieu,
“ there are two principal sources of disorder : exces¬
sive inequality between the governors and the gov¬
erned, and the same inequality between the different
members of the body that governs.” ^ The govern¬
ment of the Ho-de -no-sau-nee was exposed to neither
of these difficulties. Between the people and the
sachems, the chiefs formed a connecting link ; while
the sachems themselves were perfectly equal in po¬
litical privileges.
The unchangeable number of the rulers, and the
stability of the tenure by which the office itself is
held, are both sources of security in an oligarchy.
To the former safeguard the Iroquois adhered so
fii’mly, that upon the admission of the Tuscaroras,
as the sixth nation of the League, they were unwil¬
ling to increase the original number of sachemships ;
and the Tuscaroras have not to this day a sachem
who is admitted to all the privileges of a sachem of
1 Montesquieu, Spirit of Laws, lib. v. cap. 8.
Ch. IV.]
the Confederacy. The latter is established by the
career of Sorgo-ye-wdt'-ha^ the most gifted and intel¬
lectual of the race of the Iroquois, and, perhaps, of
the whole Indian family. With all the influence
which he exercised over the people by the power of
his eloquence, and with all the art and intrigue
which his capacity could suggest, he was never able
to elevate himself higher than to the title of Chief.
To attain even this dignity, it is said that he practiced
upon the superstitious fears of the people. The
Senecas themselves aver, that it would have been
unwise to raise up a man of his intellectual power
and extended influence to the office of sachem ; as it
would have concentrated in his hands too much
authority. Nearly the same observations apply to
the celebrated Joseph Brant, Td-yen-dd-na' -ga^ whose
abilities as a military leader secured to him the com¬
mand of the war parties of the Mohawks during the
Bevolution. He was also but a chief, and held no
other office or title in the nation, or in the Confederacy.
By the force of his character, he acquired the same
influence over the Mohawks which 8d-go-ye-wdt'-hd
maintained over the Senecas by his eloquence. The
lives of these distinguished chiefs, both equally am¬
bitious, but who pursued very different pathways
to distinction, sufficiently prove, that the office of
sachem was surrounded by impassable barriers
against those who were without the immediate
family of the sachem, and the tribe in which the
title was hereditary.
Book I, Chapter V
COTTNCILS OF THE IkOQHOIS. — INFLUENCE OF PuBLtC SENTIMENT. —
Oeatoey. — CmL Councils. — Unanimity. — Mouening Councils.
— Wampum. — Festivities. — Religious Councils.
In an oligarclij, wliere the administrative power
is vested in the members of the Rnling Body jointly,
a Conncil of the Oligarchs becomes the instrumen¬
tality through which the will of this body is ascer¬
tained and enforced. For this reason the Councils
of the Iroquois are important subjects of investiga¬
tion. By them were exercised all the legislative
and executive authority incident to the League, and
necessary for its security against outward attack and
internal dissensions. When the sachems were not
assembled around the general council-fire, the gov¬
ernment itself had no visible existence. Upon no
point, therefore, can an examination be better di¬
rected, to ascertain the degree of power vested in
the Ruling Body, and the manner in which their
domestic administration, and political relations were
conducted. When the sachems were scattered, like
the people, over a large territory, they exercised a
local and individual authority in the matters of
every-day life, or in national council jointly adjusted
the affairs of their respective nations. Those higher
Ch. V.]
and more important concernments, whicli involved
the interests of the League, were reserved to the
sachems in general council. In this council resided
the animating principle, by which their political
machinery was moved. It was, in effect, the gov¬
ernment.
The oligarchical form of government is not
without its advantages, although indicative of a low
state of civilization. A comparison of views, by the
agency of a council, would at any time be favorable
to the development of talent. It was especially the .
case among the Iroquois, in consequence of the
greater diversity of interests, and the more extended
reach of affairs incident to several nations in close
alliance. Events of greater magnitude would spring
up in the midst of a flourishing confederacy, than in
a nation of inconsiderable importance; and it is
demonstrated by the political history of all govern¬
ments, that men develop intellect in exact propor¬
tion to the magnitude of the events with 'vyhich they
become identified. For these reasons, the League
was favorable to the production of men higher in
capacity than would arise among nations whose in¬
stitutions and systems of government were inferior.
The extremely liberal character of their oli¬
garchy is manifested by the modus procedendi of
these councils. It is obvious that the sachems were
not set over the people as arbitrary rulers, to legis¬
late as their own will might dictate, irrespective of
the popular voice ; on the contrary, there is reason
to believe that a public sentiment sprang up on
5*
106 STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE. [Book I.
questions of general interest, whicb. no council felt
at liberty to disregard. By deferring all action
upon such questions until a council brought together
the sachems of the League, attended by a concourse
of inferior chiefs and warriors, an opportunity was
given to the people to judge for themselves, and to
take such measures as were necessary to give expres¬
sion and force to their opinions. If the band of
warriors became interested in the passing question,
they held a council apart, and having given it a full
consideration, appointed an orator to communicate
their views to the sachems, their Patres Gomcrijpti.
In like manner would the chiefs, and even the wo¬
men proceed, if they entertained opinions which
they wished to urge upon the consideration of the
council. From the publicity with which the affairs
of the League were conducted, and the indirect par¬
ticipation in their adjustment thus allowed the peo¬
ple, a favorable indication is afforded of the demo¬
cratic spi^t of the government.
Oratory, from the constitutional organization of
the council, was necessarily brought into high re¬
pute. Questions involving the safety of the race,
and the preservation of the League, were frequently
before it. In those warlike periods, when the Con¬
federacy was moving onward amid incessant con¬
flicts with contiguous nations, or, perchance, resist¬
ing sudden tides of migratory population, there was
no dearth of those exciting causes, of those emer¬
gencies of peril, which rouse the spirit of the peo¬
ple, and summon into activity their highest energies.
Ch. V.]
Whenever events converged to such a crisis, the
council was the first resort ; and there, under the
pressure of dangers, and in the glow of patriotism,
the eloquence of the Iroquois flowed as pure and
spontaneous as the fountains of their thousand
streamlets.
The Indian has a quick and enthusiastic appre¬
ciation of eloquence. Highly impulsive in his na¬
ture, and with passions untaught of restraint, he is
strongly susceptible of its influence. By the culti¬
vation and exercise of this capacity, was opened the
pathway to distinction ; and the chief or warrior
gifted with its magical power could elevate himself
as rapidly, as he who gained renown upon the war¬
path. With the Iroquois, as with the Eomans, the
two professions, oratory and arms,^ could establish
men in the highest degree of personal consideration.
To the ambitious Eoman in the majestic days of
the Eepublic, and to the proud Indian in his sylvan
house, the two pursuits equally commended them¬
selves ; and in one or the other alone, could either
expect success.
It is a singular fact, resulting from the structure
of Indian institutions, that nearly every transaction,
whether social or pohtical, orginated or terminated
in a council. This universal and favorite mode of
doing business became interwoven with all the af-
1 Duse sunt artes quae possunt lo- namenta retinentur ; ab illo belli pe-
carc homines in amplissimo gradu ricula repelluntur. — Ciceeo Pro Mu-
dignitatis; una imperatoris, altera raena, § 14.
orationis boni ; ab hoc enim pacis or-
108 STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE. [Book I.
fairs of public and private life. In conncil, public
transactions of every name and cbaracter were
planned, scrutinized and adopted. The succession
of tbeir rulers, tbeir athletic games, dances, and re¬
ligious festivals, and tbeir social intercourse, were
aU alike identified with councils. It may be said
that the life of the L’oquois was either spent m the
chase, on the war-path, or at the coimcil-fire. They
formed the three leading objects of his existence ;
and it would be difficult to determine for which he
possessed the strongest predilection. Regarding
them in this light, and it is believed they are not
over-estimated, a narrative of these councils would
fra'iiish an accurate and copious history of the Ii’O-
quois, both pohtical and social. The absence of
these records, now irreparable, has greatly abridged
the fulness, and diminished the accuracy of our
aboriginal history.
TTie councils of the League were of three distinct
kinds ; and they may be distinguished under the
heads of civil, mourning and religious. Their civil
councils, Ho-de-os' -seh^ were such as convened to
transact business with foreign nations, and to regu¬
late the internal administration of the Confederacy.
The mourning councils, Sen-nun-dcMiith'-seh^ were
those summoned to “ raise up” sachems to fill such
vacancies as had been occasioned by death or deposi¬
tion, and also to ratify the investiture of such chiefs
as the nations had raised up in reward of public
services. Their religious councils, Gore-we'-yo-do Ho-
Ch. V.]
de-os-Jien'-dd-lco^ were, as tlie name imports, devoted
to religious observances.
No event of any importance ever transpired witli-
ont passing under the cognizance of one or another of
these species of councils ; for all affairs seem to have
converged towards them by a natural and inevitable ■
tendency. An exposition of the mode of summon¬
ing each, of their respective powers and jurisdictions,
and of the manner of transacting business, may
serve to unfold the workings of their political sys¬
tem, their social relations, and the range of their
intellectual capacities.
The name Ho-de-os'-seli^ by which the Iroquois
designated a civil council, signifies “advising to¬
gether.” It was bestowed upon any council of sa¬
chems, which convened to take charge of the public
relations of the League, or to provide for its inter¬
nal administration. Each nation had power, under
established regulations, to convene such a council,
and prescribe the time and place of convocation.
If the envoy of a foreign people desired to sub¬
mit a proposition to the sachems of the League, and
applied to the Senecas for that purpose, the sachems
of that nation would first determine whether the
question was of sufficient importance to authorize a
council. If they arrived at an affirmative conclu¬
sion, they immediately sent out runners to the Ca-
yugas, the nation nearest in position, with a belt of
wampum. This belt announced, that, on a certain
day thereafter, at such a place, and for such and
such purposes, mentioning them, a council of the
[Book I.
League would assemble. Tbe Cayugas then notified
tbe Onondagas, they the Oneidas, and these the
Mohawks. Each nation, within its own confines,
spread the information far and wide ; and thus, in
a space of time astonishingly brief, intelligence of
the council was heralded from one extremity of
their country to the other. It produced a stir
among the people in proportion to the magnitude
and importance of the business to be transacted.
If the subject was calculated to arouse a deep feel¬
ing of interest, one common impulse from the Hud¬
son to the Niagara, and from the St. Lawrence to
the Susquehanna, drew them towards the council-
fire. Sachems, chiefs and warriors, women, and
even children, deserted their hunting grounds and
woodland seclusions, and taking the trad, literally
flocked to the place of council. "WTien the day ar¬
rived, a multitude had gathered together, from the
most remote and toilsome distances, but yet ani¬
mated by an unyielding spirit of hardihood and
endurance.
Their mode of opening a council, and proceeding
with the business before it, was extremely simple,
yet dilatory, when contrasted with the modes of
civilized life. Questions were usually reduced to
single propositions, calling for an affirmative or
negative response, and were thus either adopted or
rejected. When the sachems were assembled in the
midst of their people, and all were in readiness to
proceed, the envoy was introduced before them.
One of the sachems, by previous appointment, then
Ch. V.]
Ill
arose, and liaving thanked the Great Spirit for his
continned beneficence in permitting them to meet
together, he informed the envoy that the council
was prepared to hear him upon the business for
which it had convened. The council being thus
opened, the representative proceeded to unfold the
objects of his mission. He submitted his proposi¬
tions in regular form, and sustained them by such
arguments as the case requhed. The sachems hs-
tened with earnest and respectful attention to the
end of his address, that they might clearly under¬
stand the questions to be decided and answered.
After the envoy had concluded his speech, he with¬
drew from the council, as was customary, to await
at a distance the result of its deliberations. It then
became the duty of the sachems to agree upon an
answer ; in doing which, as would be expected, they
passed through the ordinary routine of speeches,
consultations, and animated discussions. Such was
the usual course of proceeding in the Iroquois coun¬
cil. Variations might be introduced by circum¬
stances.
At this place another peculiar institution of the
Ho-de -^lo-sau-nee is presented. All the sachems of
the League, in whom originally was vested the en¬
tire civil power, were required to be of “ one mind,”
to give efficacy to their legislation. Unanimity was
a fundamental law. The idea of majorities and
minorities were entirely unknown to our Indian
predecessors.
To hasten their deliberations to a conclusion, and
[Book I.
ascertain the result, they adopted an expedient
which dispensed entirely with the necessity of cast¬
ing votes. The founders of the Confederacy, seek¬
ing to obviate as far as possible altercation in coun¬
cil, and to facilitate their progress to unanimity,
divided the sachems of each nation into classes,
usually of two and three each, as will be seen by re¬
ferring to the table of sachemships. No sachem was
permitted to express an opinion in council, until he
had agreed with the other sachem or sachems of his
class, upon the opinion to be expressed, and had
received an appointment to act as speaker for the
class. Thus the eight Seneca sachems, being in
foiu- classes, could have but four opinions ; the ten
Cayuga sachems but four. In this manner each
class was brought to unanimity within itself. A
cross-consultation was then held between the four
sachems who represented the four classes ; and when
they had agreed, they appointed one of their num¬
ber to express their resulting opinion, which was
the answer of their nation. The several nations
having, by this ingenious method, become of “ one
mind” separately, it only remained to compare their
several opinions, to arrive at the final sentiment of
all the sachems of the League. This was effected
by a conference between the individual representa¬
tives of the several nations; and when they had
arrived at unanimity, the answer of the League was
determined.
The sovereignty of the nations, by this mode of
giving assent, was not only preserved, but made
Ch. V.]
subservient to tbe effort itself to seciu’e unanimity.
K any sacbem was obdurate or unreasonable, influ¬
ences were brought to bear upon him which he
could not well resist ; and it was seldom that incon¬
venience resulted from their inflexible adherence to
the rule. When, however, all efforts to produce
unanimity failed of success, the whole matter was
laid aside. Farther action became at once impos¬
sible. A result, either favorable or adverse, having,
in this way, been reached, it was communicated to
the envoy by a speaker selected for the purpose.
This orator was always chosen from the nation with
whom the council originated, and it was usual with
him to review the whole subject presented to the
council in a formal speech, and at the same time to
announce the conclusions to which the sachems of
the Confederacy had arrived. This concluding
speech terminated the business of the council, and
the Indian diplomatist took his departure.
The war against the Fries, which resulted in the
extermination or expulsion of that nation from the
western part of this State, about the year 1653, was
declared by the sachems of the Iroquois in general
council. The French war, also, which they waged
with such indomitable courage and perseverance for
so many years, was resolved upon in the same manner.
Their traditions record other struggles with Indian
nations, some of which were engaged in by the
League, and others either commenced or assumed
by a nation separately. At the beginning of the
American Eevolution, the Iroquois could not agree
[Book L
ill council to make war as a confederacy upon our
confederacy. A number of tbe Oneida sacbems
firmly resisted tbe assumption of bostibties, and
thus defeated tbe measm’e as an act of tbe League,
for tbe want of unanimity. Some of tbe nations,
bowever, especially tbe Mobawks, were so interlink¬
ed with tbe British, that neutrality was impossible.
Under tbis pressure of circumstances, it was resolved
in council to suspend tbe rule, and leave eacb nation
to engage in tbe war upon its own responsibility.
In tbe councils of tbe Iroquois, tbe dignity and
order ever preserved bave become proverbial. Tbe
gravity of Nestor was exemplified by tbeir sages,
and more than tbe harmony of tbe Grecian chiefs
existed among tbeir sacbems. In tbeir elevation to
tbe highest degree of pobtical distinction ever reach¬
ed by any Indian race, except tbe Aztec, tbe clear¬
est evidence is presented of tbe wisdom and pru¬
dence with which these councils watched over tbe
pubbc welfare.
Tbe succession of tbe Ruling Body, whether se¬
cured by election, or by laws of inheritance, is an
event of deep importance to tbe people, whose per¬
sonal security and welfare are to a large extent un¬
der tbe guardianship of tbeir rulei’s. It seems to
bave been tbe aim of tbe Ho-de' ^no-sa'Urme to avoid
tbe dangers of an bereditaiy transmission of power,
without folly adopting tbe opposite principle of a
free election, founded upon merit and capacity.
Tbeir system was a modification of tbe two op¬
posite rules, and claims the merit of originabty, as
Ch. V.]
well as of adaptation to their social and political
condition.
It is in accordance with the principles, and ne¬
cessary to the existence of an oligarchy, that the
ruling body should possess a general, if not an ab¬
solute authority over the admission of its mem¬
bers, and over the succession to its dignities,
where the vacancies are occasioned by death. In
some respects the oligarchy of the Iroquois was
wider than those of antiquity. The tribes retained
the power of designating successors, independent
of the oligarchs; while, for the security of the
latter, the number was limited by the fundamental
law. It was the province of the ruling body to
“ raise up” the sachems selected by the tribes, and
to invest -them with office. In the ancient oligar¬
chies, which were less liberal and much less sys¬
tematic in their construction, the whole power of
making rulers appears to have l^en appropriated
by the rulers themselves.
To perform the ceremony adverted to, of “raising
up” sachems, and of confirming the investiture of such
chiefs as had been previously raised up by a nation,
the Mourning council was instituted. Its name,
Hen-nun-do-^uh'-seh^ signifies, with singular proprie¬
ty, “ a mourning council as it embraced the two-fold
object of lamenting the deceased with suitable so¬
lemnities, and of establishing a successor in the sa-
chemship made vacant by his demise.
Upon the death of a sachem, the nation in which
the loss had occurred had power to summon a
116 STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE. [Book I,
council, and designate the day and place. If the
Oneidas, for example, had lost a ruler, they sent
out runners at the earliest convenient day, with
“ belts of invitation” to the sachems of the League,
and to the people at large, to assemble around their
national council-fire at Gayiio-Orld-Jidle, The invi¬
tation was circulated in the same manner, and with
the same celerity as in convoking a civil council.
These belts or the strings of wampum, sent out on
such occasions, conveyed a laconic message : “ the
name” of the deceased “calls for a council.” It
also announced the place and the time.
The name and the appeal fell not in vain upon
the ear of the Iroquois. There was a potency iu
the name itself which none could resist. It pen¬
etrated every seclusion of the forest ; and reached
every ga^io-sote' upon the Mllside, on the margin
of the lakes, or in the deep solitudes of the wood.
No warrior, wise man or chief failed to hear, or
could withstand the call. A principle within was
addressed, which ever responded; respect and vener¬
ation for the sachems of the League.
For these councils, and the festivities with which
they were concluded, the Ho-de'-no-savrme ever re¬
tained a passionate fondness. No inclemency of
season, nor remoteness of residence, nor frailty of
age or of sex offered impassable obstructions. To
that hardy spirit which led the Iroquois to traverse
the war-paths of the distant south and west, and to
leave their hunting trails upon the Potomac and
Ohio, the distance to a council within their imme-
Ch.V.] moijrotng councils, IIY
diate territories would present inconsiderable hin¬
drances. From the Mohawk to the Genesee, they
forsook their hunting-grounds, and their encamp¬
ments, and put themselves upon the trail for the
council-fire. Old men with gray hairs and totter¬
ing steps, young men in the vigor of youth, war¬
riors inured to the hardships of incessant strife,
children looking out, for the first time, upon life,
and women, with their infants encased in the goros-
lia^ all performed the journey with singular rapid¬
ity and endurance. From every side they bent
their footsteps towards the council ; and when the
day arrived, a large concourse of warriors, chiefs,
wise men and sachems, from the most remote as
well as the subjacent parts of their territory, greeted
each other beside the council-fire of the Oneidas.
This council, although entirely of a domestic
character, was conducted with many ceremonies.
Before the arrival of the day announced by the*
belt, the several nations entered the country of the
Oneidas in separate bands, and encamped at a dis¬
tance from the council-house. To advance at once,
would have been a violation of Iroquois usages.
Eunners were sent on by the approaching nation to
announce its arrival, and it remained encamped
until the Oneidas had signified their readiness for
its reception. On the day appointed, if the neces¬
sary arrangements had been perfected, a rude re¬
ception ceremony opened the proceedings. The
several nations in separate trains, each one preceded
by its civil and military dignitaries, drew simul-
[Book L
taneously towards the council-fire, and were receiv¬
ed and welcomed by the Oneidas in a ceremonious
manner. The latter advanced to meet them at a
distance from the village, where a temporary coun¬
cil-fire was kindled ; after which the chief person¬
ages of the advancing bands walked around the fire,
singing the songs of mourning designed for the oc¬
casion. When the songs were finished, the pipe of
peace was circulated. Speeches were exchanged
between the parties, and the belts of wampum, with
which the council had been called, were returned.
The several bands, upon the completion of these cer¬
emonies, advanced in file, a funeral procession, and
singing the mourning songs, to the general council-
fire at the Indian village, where the people arrayed
themselves in two divisions. The Mohawks, Onon-
dagas and Senecas, who, as elsewhere stated, were
brother nations to each other, and fathers to the
other three, seated themselves upon one side of the
fire. On the other side were arranged the Oneidas,
Cayugas and Tuscaroras, who, in like manner, were
brothers to each other, but children to the three
first. By their peculiar customs, if the deceased sa¬
chem belonged to either of the three elder nations,
he was mourned as a father by the three junior ;
and it became the duty of the latter to perform the
ceremony of lamentation prescribed by their usages
for the deceased, and afterwards that of raising
up his successor. If, on the contrary, the departed
ruler belonged to either of the junior nations, as in
the case supposed, it cast upon the elder nations the
Ch. V.]
duty of lamenting liis deatli as a cMld, in tlie cus¬
tomary form, and of installing a successor in the
vacant sachemship.
These observances were performed with the ac¬
customed gravity and earnestness of the red man ;
and were, in themselves, neither devoid of interest,
nor unadapted to impress the mind. The lament
was a tribute to the virtues, and to the memory of
the departed sachem, a mourning scene, in which
not only the tribe and nation of the deceased, but
the League itself participated. Surely, a more del¬
icate testimonial of affection than would have been
looked for among our Indian predecessors. The
ceremony of raising up a successor, which followed,
was a succession of musical chants, with choruses,
intermingled with speeches and responses. Uj)on
the whole scene, rendered wild and picturesque by
the variety of costumes, there rested a spirit of
silence and solemnity which invested it with singu¬
lar interest.
A prominent part of the ceremonial consisted in
the repetition of their ancient laws and usages, and
an exposition of the structure and principles of the
League, for the instruction of the newly-inducted
rulers. In the midst of each division, the chief per¬
sonages of the elder and junior nations were grouped
together. Between the two groups of sachems, the
wise-man who conducted the observances walked
to and fro, repeating those traditionary lessons, and
unfolding those regulations, which had been handed
down from the foundation of the Confederacy.
[Book L
Some of them were salutary and instructive, while
the most wei'e indicative of wisdom and forethought.
Among the injunctions left by Da-ga-no-we the
founder of the League, there was one designed to
impress upon theii’ minds the necessity of union and
hai’mony. It was clothed in a figurative dress, as is
the custom of the red man when he would produce
a vivid impression. He enjoined them to plant a
tree with four roots, branching severally to the north,
south, east and west. Beneath its shade the sa¬
chems of the League must sit down together in per¬
petual unity, if they would preserve its stability, or
secure the advantage it was calculated to bestow.
If they did so, the power of the Ho-dd -mxhsmMim
would be planted as firmly as the oak, and the
blasts of advei*se fortune would rage against it in
vain.
The laws explained at different stages of the cer¬
emonial, were repeated from strings of wampum,^
into which they “had been talkeff” at the time of
their enactment. In the Indian method of express-
I The original ■wnmpum of the Iro¬
quois, in -whidi the laws of the League
were recorded, was made of spiral
fresh-water shells, Ote-ko'-a, which
were strung on deer skin strings, or
sinew, and Uie strands braided into
belts, or amply united into strings.
This species of wampum has been for
many years out of use •, but all wam¬
pum still bears this name. Hubbard
thus speaks of wampum in general :
“ It is of two sorts, white and purple.
The white is worked out of the inside
of the great concl^, into the form of
a bead, and perforated to string on
leather. The purple is worked out
of the inside of the muscle shelL
They are wove as broad as one’s hand,
and about two feet long. These they
call belts, and give and receive at
their treaties as the seals of their
friendship.” Nar. Ind. Wars, Hew
Eng., p. 40. It was first known in
Hew England as Wampumpeag,
{Baynes’ Hew Plymouth, p. 37 ;) and
the art of making it was obtained
from the Dutch, according to Hutch¬
inson about 1627.
Ch. V.]
ing tlie idea, tlie string, or tlie belt can tell, by
means of an interpreter, tbe exact law or transac¬
tion of wbicb it was made, at tbe time, tbe sole evi¬
dence. It operates upon tbe principle of associa¬
tion, and tbus seeks to give fidelity to tbe memory.
These strings and belts were tbe only visible records
of tbe Iroquois ; and were of no use except by tbe
aid of those special personages who could draw
forth tbe secret records locked up in their remem¬
brance.
It is worthy of note, that but bttle importance
was attached to a promise or assurance of a foreign
power, unless belts or strings were given to preserve
it in recollection. Verbal propositions, or those not
confirmed by wampum, were not considered worthy
of special preservation.^ As tbe laws and usages
of tbe Confederacy were intrusted to tbe guardian¬
ship of such strings, one of tbe Onondaga sachems,
Ho-no-we-^a'-to^ was constituted “Keeper of tbe
Wampum.” and was required to be versed in its in¬
terpretation.
On these occasions, tbe wise-man who officiated
interpreted strings from time to time, and carried
them from one division of sachems to tbe other. In
reply, as many others were subsequently returned
with similar forms and explanations. In this man¬
ner, with a multitude of forms and ceremonies, con-
^ “ It is obvious to all who are the by strings or belts of wampum, which
least acquainted with Indian affairs, they look upon as we our letters, or
that they regard no message or invita- rather bonds.” Letter of Sir W. John-
tion, be it of what consequence it son, 11o3. Doc. Hist. X. Y., vol. ii. p.
will, unless attended or confirmed 624.
[Book I.
suming tlie greater part of a day in tlieir repetition,
were their sachems raised np. The proceedings
were closed with a presentation of the newly-in¬
vested rulers to the people, under the names of their
respective sachemships, which, from that day forth,
they were permitted to assume.
Up to this stage of the Council, neither gaiety nor
miidhfulness were exhibited by the old or young.
The people were in mourning for the deceased, and
rendering the last acts of public respect. When,
however, these offices had been performed, and the
places left vacant among the rulers had been filled,
the reasons for lamentation had disappeared, and
with them disappeared the outward signs. The
evening was given up to feasting, and to their re¬
ligious and domestic dances. It was not uncommon
to spend several days in these festivities ; devoting
the days in succession to athletic games, and the
evenings to the feast, and to the social dance.
The succession, under these simple regulations,
was rendered entirely free from turmoil and strife ;
and became not only an easy transaction, but an
imposing, and, to them, instructive ceremonial.
Upon the sachems was bestowed sufficient control
over the transmission of the sachemships for their
own protection; while the still more important
power of naming those to be raised up, and of de¬
posing the unfaithful, which was retained by the
tribes, secured the people from oppression and mis-
government.
A wider dissimilarity, than subsists between the
Ch. V.]
institutions of our Indian predecessors and our own,
cannot be easily conceived. They are as unlike as
the races themselves in their essential characteris¬
tics. If, however, a correct impression is desired of
the state of society, political and social, in which
the Iroquois have existed, and in which they have
developed whatever of character they possessed, it
must be sought in their customs and institutions ; it
must be furnished by the practical operation of that
stupendous system of inter-relationships by which
they were bound together, and from which every
act in their social intercourse received a tinge.
The degree of social intercourse between the na¬
tions of the League was much greater than would
at first be suggested. In the pursuits of the chase
and of conquest, and in attendance upon councils,
they traversed the whole territory far and near.
Their trailfe penetrated the forest in every direction,
and their main thoroughfares were as well beaten,
as the highways now passing over the same lines.
With their habits of traveling over the whole area
of the State, they were doubtless more familiar than
ourselves with its hills and plains, rivers and lakes,
its wild retreats and forest concealments. Much of
their social intercourse, especially between the na¬
tions, was around their council-fires. The Councils
themselves formed a bond of union, and drew them
together instinctively. They famished the excite¬
ments and the recreations of Indian life, as weU as
relieved the monotony of peace. It was here they
recounted their exploits upon the war-path, or lis-
[Book I.
tened to the eloquence of favorite chiefs. Here
they offered tributes of respect to those deceased
sachems who had rendered themselves illustrious by
public services ; or listened to the laws and regula¬
tions of their ancestors, which were explained by
their sages in the ceremonial of raising up succes¬
sors. It was here, also, that they celebrated their
athletic games with Olympic zeal; and joined in
those national dances, some of which were inde¬
scribably beautiful and animated.
Custom required the particular tribe in which
sachems had been raised up, to furnish a daily en¬
tertainment to the multitude during the continu¬
ance of the council. The pursuits of the day were
suspended as the shades of evening began to fall,
and they all sat down to a common repast, which
the matrons of the tribe had prepared. After the
business upon which the council convened had been
consummated, each day in succession was devoted
to the simple but diversified amusements of Indian
life, the twilight to the feast, and the evening to the
dance. The wild notes of their various tunes, ac¬
companied by the turtle-shell rattle and the drum ;
the rattles, which entered into the costumes of the
warriors, and the noise of the moving throng, all
united, sent forth a “ sound of revelry” which fell
with strange accents in the hours of night upon the
solemn stillness of the woods. This sound of pleas¬
ure and amusement was continued from day to day,
until “ pleasure itself became satiety,” and amuse¬
ment had lost its power to charm.
Ch. V.]
When the spirit of festivity had become exhaust¬
ed, the fire of the Hen-nun-do-nuh' -sell was raked
together, and the several nations bent their way
homeward through the forest. Silence once more
resumed her sway over the deserted scene, as the
sounds of merriment subsided, and the lingering
hum of the dissolving council died insensibly away.
Obscmuty next advanced with stealthy mien, and
quickly folding the incidents of this sylvan pageant
in her dusky mantle, she bore them, with their as¬
sociations, their teachings, and their remembrances,
into the dark realm of Oblivion ; from which their
recall would be as hopeless as would be the last
shout which rang along the valley.
The celebration of their religious festivals was
through the instrumentality of councils, and these
form the third class. But as they are described in
the succeeding pages, no further mention of them
will now be made, except to notice them as one of
the species into which the councils of the Iroquois
are properly divisible. In addition to the religious
councils which were held at the period of their fes¬
tivals, the mourning council was always made an oc¬
casion for religious and moral instruction. Many
of its exercises were of a strictly religious character,
and it would be more proper to designate it as a
rehgious council, than by any other name, but for
the circumstance that its object was to raise- up
rulers, and its ceremonies were entirely distinct from
those at the regular festivals.
The influence of the civil, mourning and religious
[Book I.
couiicils upon tlie people, would, of itself, furnisli an
extensive subject of in(][uiry. Like all tbe pursuits
of Indian life, they changed but little from age to
age, and were alike in their essential characteristics,
in their mode of transacting business, in their fes¬
tivities, and in the spirit by which they were ani¬
mated. From the frequency of their occurrence,
and the deep interest with which they were regard¬
ed, it is evident that they exercised a vast influence
upon the race. The intercourse and society which
they afforded, had, undoubtedly, a power to human¬
ize and soften down the asperities of character,
which their mode of life was calculated to produce.
Book I, Chapter VI
Species of Government. — Progress of Governments from Mon¬
archy TO Democracy. — Illustrated by a View of Grecian
Institutions. — The League an Oligarchy. — Liberty of the
People. — Stability of the League. — Prospects at the Dis¬
covery. — Its Decline.
The Ruling Body of tlie League, witli its powers,
and the tenure of office of its members — tbe division
of tbe people into tribes, with the cross-relationships
between them — the laws of succession with their in¬
cidents — and the councils of the Iroquois with their
mode of proceeding, spirit and effects, have severally
been brought under consideration.
Upon the facts derived from these sources of in¬
vestigation, the true character of the Iroquois gov¬
ernment must be settled. If it is referable to any
determined species, the constituent parts and gene¬
ral features of the League, which have formed the
subjects of the preceding chapters, will determine
its position in the scale of civil organizations estab¬
lished by political writers.
In their original, web-developed institutions, and
in their government, so systematic in its construc¬
tion, and so liberal in its administration, there is
much to enforce a tribute of respect to the intelli-
[Book L
gence of oui’ Indian predecessors. Without such
institutions, and without that animating spirit which
they nourished and diffused, it would be difficult to
account for the production of such men as have
sprung up among the Iroquois. The development
of national intellect depends chiefly upon external,
reciprocal influences, and is usually proportionate to
the vitality and motive which the institutions of a
people possess and furnish.
To illustrate, substantially, the nature of their
government, it will be necessary to notice the seve¬
ral species which have been instituted among men,
the natm’al order of theii* origination, the relations
in which they mutually stand to each other, and
their general characteristics. In no other way can
a clear conception be obtained of the character of
the Ii’oquois government, and the relation which it
sustains to other political fabrics. No apology,
therefore, wiU be necessary for the digression.
Aristotle, and other Grecian political writers, rec¬
ognized but three species of government : the
monarchical, the aristocratical, and the democrati-
cal ; the rule of “ one,” the “ few,” and the “ many.”
Every other variety was regarded as the wreck, or
perversion, of one of the thi’ee. If, for example,
the first was corrupted, it became a tyranny ; if the
second degenerated, it was styled an oligarchy j
and if the last became tumultuous, it was called an
ochlocracy., A polity, or the rule of a large body
of select citizens, was a milder form of oligarchy.
This classification admits of a quahfication to the
Oh. VI.]
definition of an aristocracy and oligarchy, hereafter
to be noticed.
Modern political writers also recognize three
species, as laid down by Montesquieu : the despotic,
the monarchical, and the republican. The aristo¬
cratic and democratic forms of the Greeks are in¬
cluded in the republican form of modern times:
while the monarchical government of the present
day — “ the rule of a single person by fixed laws” —
was entirely unknown to the ancient Greeks. It is
further observable that a despotism, as defined by
Montesquieu, corresponds precisely with the mon¬
archy of Aristotle.
The order of their origination suggests an impor¬
tant general principle ; that there is a regular pro*
gression of political institutions, from the monarchi¬
cal, which are the earliest in time, on to the demo-
cratical, which are the last, the noblest, and the
most intellectual. This position can be established
by the rise and development of the Grecian institu¬
tions, and may be further illustrated by the pro¬
gressive change in the spiiit and nature of other
governments.
An unlimited monarchy, or “ the rule of a single
individual according to his own will,” is the form
of government natui’al to a people when in an un¬
civilized state, or when just emerging from barbar¬
ism. In the progress of time, by the growth and
expansion of civil liberty, the monarchy becomes
liberalized or limited, and a few steps forward intro¬
duce universal democracy. Hence it is noticeable
6*
[Book I.
in the rise of all races, and in the formation of all
states, that the idea of chief and follower, or sove¬
reign and people, is of spontaneous suggestion.
This notion may he regarded as inherent to society
in its primitive state.
It will be remembered that when the Hellenic
tribes came down from Thessaly, and finally settled
themselves upon the shores of the Mediterranean,
them political relations were those of chief and fol¬
lower. After they had become subdivided into a
large number of petty states, and migrations and
intermixtures had subsided, leaving each principality
under its own ruler, and to the formation of its own
institutions, the monarchical form of government
became fully established. The small territory of
Greece was parcelled out between nearly twenty
petty kingdoms. During the Heroic ages, which
are understood to have commenced with this inun¬
dation of the Grecian territory by the Hellenes,
and to have terminated with the Trojan war, a pe¬
riod of about two hundred years, the kingly gov¬
ernment was the only one among the Greeks.
At the close of the Heroic ages, a new state of
aflhirs became apparent. Around the reigning fam¬
ilies in the several kingdoms, there had sprung up
a class of Eupatrids, or nobles, who were in pos¬
session of most of the landed estates. Having
elevated themselves far above the mass of the peo¬
ple, in the social scale, they gradually absorbed
political powers which had before been vested in
the kings. By the silent but natural growth of this
Cff. VI]
VIEW OF CtRECTAN ijistitutions.
aristocracy, continued encroacliinents were made
upon tlie prerogatives of royalty, until at last tlie
kings were brought down to a level with their Eu-
patrids. An aristocracy was thus substituted for
monarchy ; and nearly all the states of Greece, in
their political progress towards democracy, passed
out of the monarchical into the aristocrsitical form
of government.
This form, although indicative of more liberality
than the former, and adapted to the state of civil
society then existing, pressed heavily upon the peo¬
ple ; and while it existed, was unfavorable to the ele¬
vation of the race. The Demos, or common people,
were free, but were excluded from all political priv¬
ileges ; hence, with the increase of their intelli¬
gence, would be excited jealousies of the incumbent
class. At times, the very existence of the aristoc¬
racy depended upon the forcible subjection of the
Demos ; for when the great and just sentiment of
“ political equality” began to be coupled with that
of “ personal liberty,” no form of government could
rest in permanent security, -which limited the one,
or denied the other. The Grecian mind was emi¬
nently progressive. ISFo power could subdue or
euslave that native energy, which had exemplified
itself in the hardy enterprises of the Heroic ages.
Nothing could repress or lastingly fetter that majes¬
tic intellect, out of which, even then, had sprung a
system of mythology destined to infuse itself into
the literature of all generations, and to quicken the
intellects of every clime — a system so remarkable
[Book L
as an exhibition of the nngmded devotional natui’e
of man, and so brilliant as a creation of the imagin¬
ation, that it may be characterized as the greatest
production of genius and credulity which ever
emanated from the mind of man.
In the progress of events, the ai’istocracies were
successfoUy invaded by an uprising of men of wealth,
or of capacity, from among the common people.
These ambitious plebeians demanded a place in the
ruling body, and if refused, they became the cham¬
pions of the people, and engaged in measures for
the overthrow of the government. Such difficulties
were usuallj^ avoided by admitting these new fami¬
lies to a place among the Eupatiids, and to a pai'ti-
cipation in the administration. In this way the
aiistocracy of wealth and talent was in a measure
placed upon an equality with that of birth ; and
by the act the government itself was widened, or
liberalized.
Th^e inroads upon the aristocracy, which gene¬
rally resulted in the infusion of the populai' element,
may be regarded as the introduction or commence¬
ment of the oligai’chy. The difference between the
two species is to be sought in the spirit by which
each respectively was actuated, and not in their
forms ; for the same body of aristocrats usually be¬
came oligarchs by a change in the spirit of the gov¬
ernment. When an aristocracy became corrupt
and odious to the people, and sought only to per¬
petuate its own power, it became, in the Grecian
sense, a faction, an oligarchy. It ceased to be the
Ch.VI.] view of GRECIAN INSTITUTIONS. 133
rule of tlie “best men,” and became tbe
rule of tbe “ few” (^dU^oi.') This definition admits of
a qualification. Wben an aristocracy became wi¬
dened or liberabzed, by. tbe admission of men of
capacity to an equal position, and tbe government
assumed a milder spirit, tbe aristocracy would, in
effect, be changed, but not into a. faction. It would
be as unlike a rigorous aristocracy as an oligarchical
faction, and may be denominated a simple or liberal
oligarchy. The government of tbe Iroquois falls
under this precise definition. It cannot be called
an aristocracy, because tbe sachems of the League
possessed no landed estates, which, it is well known,
are the only true foundation of an aristocracy ; nei¬
ther were their titles or privileges hereditary, in the
strict sense, which is another important element of
an aristocracy. Their government, however, was
the rule of “ the few.” It was an aristocracy liber¬
alized, until it stood upon the very verge of democ¬
racy. It answers to the idea of an oligarchy, which
is the last form of government but one, in the pro¬
gressive series.
The governments of the Grecian states appear to
have oscillated for centuries between the rigorous
aristocracies, ohgarchical factions, and milder oligar¬
chies. These forms were rather transition than per¬
manent conditions of their civil institutions. Dur¬
ing the period of their prevalence, the people, who,
as before remarked, were personally free, but de¬
barred from political privileges, were gradually im¬
proving their condition by the accumulation of
X34 STRUCTUEE of the league. [Book L
wealth, and consolidating their strength by the up-
rearing of flourishing cities. With the increase of
their respectability, and the expansion of their
power, the struggle with the incumbent class was
continued with greater and still greater success.
Principles of government became better understood,
and more enlarged views of the rights of man con¬
tinued to quicken the Grecian mind. Every suc¬
cessive age added to the popular intelligence ; and
the people gradually, but constantly, continued to
repossess themselves of their original authority.
The growth of liberty and free institutions among
the Greeks was slow, but irresistible. The struggle
of the people for emancipation lasted from gener¬
ation to generation, from century to century ; until,
having emerged from the darkness of barbarism,
and worked their way through every species of gov¬
ernment ever devised by the genius of man, they
achieved at last a triumph ; and their institutions,
which had been planted and nourished during this
march of ages, finally ripened into universal de¬
mocracy.
In the history of the States of Greece, there is
noticeable in the midst of a wide diversity of events,
a great uniformity of progress — with a difference in
the period of the development of political changes,
a marked tendency to the same results. Every
change in their institutions, from the era of absolute
monarchy, made them more liberal ; but it required
upward of seven centuries to liberalize them into a
“ finished democracy which fully satisfied the Greek
Ch. VL]
notion; a state in wliicli every attribute of sov¬
ereignty might be shared, without respect to rank
or property, by every freeman ” ^ The Greeks be¬
gan with monarchy, and having passed through all
the intermediate species and shades of government
in the progressive series, they finally developed their
highest capacities, their most brilliant genius, under
the bounding pulse of an extreme, even enthusiastic
democracy. How truthful the exclamation of He¬
rodotus : “ Liberty is a brave thing.”
The same tendency of institutions towards de¬
mocracy, as races elevate themselves in the scale of
civilization, can be observed in the progressive im¬
provement of British institutions. No people have
been subjected to such tests, civil and rehgious;
and issued from the throes of revolution with more
character, more civilization, more majesty of intel¬
lect, for achievements in legislation, science and
learning, than our parent, Anglo-Saxon race. Their
career, with all its vicissitudes, from the union of
the Heptarchies under Egbert, down to the final
settlement of the government on the expulsion of
the second James, is full of instruction — full of
* The Trojan war closed 1184 b. c.,
and the States of Greece soon after¬
wards passed out of the monarchical
form of government. At Athens it was
abolished in 1068 b. o. But not until
about the year 4*70 b. o., when Aris¬
tides the J ust removed the last aris-
tocratical features from the Athenian
institutions, could Athens be called a
“ finished democracy.” He broke up
the distinctions between the classes
which Solon had established, and
opened all the dignities of the State
to every citizen. Between the Tro¬
jan war and this last period, the
Athenians had passed through Mon¬
archy, Tyranny, Aristocracy, Faction,
Anarchy, Oligarchy, Polity, and limit¬
ed Democracy. With the legislation
of Aristides commenced the rapid
elevation of the city of Minerva, and
of that noble, unequalled race.
136 STRUCTUB,E OF THE LEAGUE. [Book I.
great lessons. They have tested monarchy in all its
degrees of strength and weakness, of popularity
and odium, of oppression and dependence. Their
nobles have enjoyed all the privileges, immunities,
and powers, which possession of the landed estates,
the vassalage of the people, and independence of
the crown could secure ; while in turn they have
been humble and submissive, even servile, under the
arbitrary sway of tyrannous kings. The people,
before the time of Edward the First, were cyphers
in the State. Since then, they have suffered reli¬
gious bondage, and the oppression of a feudal aris¬
tocracy. In the progress of events, however, they
have constantly enlarged the quantity of their lib¬
erty, and strengthened the guarantees of personal
security. But if they finally achieved that personal
freedom which the Grecian citizen never lost, they
never have secured that “ equality of privileges”
which was the constant aspiration of the Greek
until attained, which was the watchword in the
struggle for American freedom, and which now lies
at the foundation of our own political edifice.
The British government has been liberalized
from age to age, until it may now be said to stand
intrenched upon the borders of free institutions.
Eeturning from this digression, which was de¬
signed to illustrate the position, not very recondite,
of a progression of institutions, from the monarch¬
ical, the earliest form of political society, on to the
democratical, the last, and most truly enlightened ;
we can now take up the government of the Iroquois,
Cn. VI] THE LEAGUE AN OLIGARCHY. IS'T
and determine tlie position wMcli it occupies be¬
tween tbe two extremes of monarchy on the one band,
and democracy on tbe other.
Tbe Iroquois bad passed out of tbe earliest form
of government, that of chief and follower, which is
incident both to tbe hunter and nomadic states, into
tbe oligarchical form. It is obvious that tbe hunter
bfe is incompatible with monarchy, except in its
miniature form of chief and follower ; and the Ho-
de' -no-soM-nee^ in improving upon this last relation,
passed over the monarchical, into the rule of “ the
few.” Several tribes first united into one nation.
The people mingled by intermarriage, and the power
of the chiefs ceased to be several, and became joint.
This gave to the nation an aristocratical, or oligarch¬
ical form of government, according to the spirit by
which it was actuated. By a still higher effort of
legislation, several nations were united in a league
or confederacy ; placing the people upon an equality,
and introducing a community of privileges. The
national rulers then became in a united body the
rulers of the League. In this manner would be con¬
stituted oligarchies within an embracing oligarchy,
impermm in imperio^ presenting the precise gov¬
ernment of the Iroquois, and with great proba¬
bility the exact manner of its origination, growth
and final settlement.
The Grecian oligarchies do not furnish an exact
type of that of our Indian predecessors. In its
construction the latter was more perfect, systematic
and liberal than those of antiquity. There was in
[Book I
tlie Indian fabric more of fixedness, more of de¬
pendence upon the people, more of vigor. It would
be difficult to find a fairer specimen of the govern¬
ment of the few ^ than the one under consideration.
In the happy constitution of its ruling body, and in
the effective security of the people from misgovern-
ment it stands unrivalled. In assigning to this gov¬
ernment its specific name, it wiU be sufficient to
adopt the etymologj^ of the word oligarchy, the
Tide of the few ^ rejecting the usual Grecian accepta¬
tion of the term, a degenerated aristocracy. The
substitution of the female line for the male, effect¬
ing thereby the disinheritance of the son, the par¬
tially elective character of the sachemships, the
absence of all landed estates, and the power of de¬
posing lodged with the tribes, are reasons conclusive
for regarding the government of the Iroquois as an
oligarchy rather than an aristocracy.
The spirit which prevailed in the nations and in
the Confederacy was that of freedom. The people
appear to have secured to themselves all the liberty
which the hunter state rendered desirable. They
fully appreciated its value, as is evinced by the lib¬
erality of their institutions. The red man was al¬
ways free from political bondage, and, more worthy
still of remembrance, his free limbs never wore a
shackle.” His spirit could never be bowed in servi¬
tude. In the language of Charlevoix, the Iroquois
were “ entirely convinced that man was born free,
that no power on earth had any right to make any
attempts against his liberty, and that nothing could
Ch. VL]
make kim amends for its loss.” It would be difficult
to describe any political society, in wkicb there was
less of oppression and discontent, more of individ¬
ual independence and boundless freedom. The ab¬
sence of family distinctions, and of all property,
together with the irresistible inclination for the
chase, rendered the social condition of the people
peculiar to itself. It secured to them an exemption
from the evils, as well as denied to them the refine¬
ments, which flow from the possession of wealth,
and the indulgence of the social relations.
At this point the singular trait in the character
of the red man suggests itself, that he never felt the
“ power of gain.” The auri sacra fames of Yirgil,
the stadium T/mri of Horace, never penetrated his
nature. This great passion of civilized man, in its
use and abuse his blessing and his curse, never roused
the Indian mind. It was doubtless the great reason
of his continuance in the hunter state ; for the de¬
sire of gain is one of the earliest manifestations of
progressive mind, and one of the most powerful pas¬
sions of which the mind is susceptible. It clears
the forest, rears the city, builds the merchantman —
in a word, it has civilized our race.
All things considered, the Iroquois oligarchy ex¬
cites a belief of its superiority over those of an¬
tiquity. Those of Greece were exceedingly unsta¬
ble, and therefore incline us to regard them as
transition states of their institutions ; whOe that of
the Hode' -no-saumee was guarded in so many ways
for the resistance of political changes, that it would
[Book I,
have required a very energetic popular movement
for its overthrow. The former retained many ele¬
ments of aristocracy, while the latter had become so
far liberalized as to be almost entirely free. With¬
out the influence of cities, which no people construct
who live in the hunter state, and the important con¬
sequences which result from the aggregation of so¬
ciety into large communities, the government of
the Iroquois would doubtless have retained its oli¬
garchical form through many generations. It would
have lasted until the people had abandoned the
hunter state ; until they had given up the chase for
agriculture, the arts of war for those of industry,
the hunting-ground and the fishing encampment for
the village and the city.
It win not be necessary to extend the inquiry, to
exhibit more fully the gradual changes in the gov¬
ernment of the Iroquois, by which it was brought
upon the verge of free institutions. The creation
of the class of chiefs furnishes the clearest evidence
of the development of the popular element. The
proofs of its extreme liberality have been sufficiently
exhibited in the structure of the government itself.
Keflections could be multiplied upon its spirit, its
influence upon the people, its operative force in the
development of talent, and its adaptation to pro¬
duce its historical results; but it is not deemed
necessary to carry forward reflections of this de¬
scription. An outline of the structure of the
League has been drawn, and from its general char¬
acteristics its principles can be easily deduced.
Ch. VL]
Under this simple hut beautiful fabric of Indian
construction arose the power of the Iroquois, reach¬
ing, at its full meridian, over a large portion of our
republic. In their Long House, which opened its
door upon Niagara, they found shelter in the hour
of attack, resources for conquest in the season of
ambitious projects, and happiness and contentment
in the days of peace. In adaptation to their mode
of hfe, their habits and their wants, no scheme of
government could have been devised better calcu¬
lated for their security against outward attack, their
triumph upon the war-path, and their internal tran¬
quillity. It is, perhaps, the only league of nations
ever instituted among men, which can point to three
centuries of uninterrupted domestic unity and peace.
The institutions which would be expected to exist
under such a political system as that of the Iroquois,
would necessarily be simple. Their mode of life
and limited wants, the absence of property in a
comparative sense, and the infrequency of crime
dispensed with a vast amount of the legislation
and machinery incident to the protection of civilized
society. While, therefore, it would be unreasonable
to seek those high qualities of mind which result
from ages of cultivation, in such a rude state of ex¬
istence, it would be equally irrational to regard the
Indian character as devoid of all those higher char¬
acteristics which ennoble the human race. If he
has never contributed a page to science, nor a dis¬
covery to art ; if he loses in the progress of gene¬
rations as much as he gains ; still there are certain
[Book L
qualities of his mind which shine forth in all the
lustre of natural perfection. His simple integrity,
his generosity, his unbounded hospitality, his love
of truth, and, above all, his unshaken fidelity — a
sentiment inborn, and standing out so conspicuously
in his character, that it has not untruthfully become
its characteristic: all these are adornments of hu¬
manity, which no art of education can instil, nor
refinement of civilization can bestow. If they exist
at aU, it is because the gifts of the Deity have never
been perverted.
There was, however, a fatal deficiency in Indian
society, in the non-existence of a progressive spirit.
The same rounds of amusement, of business, of
warfare, of the chase, and of domestic intercourse
continued from generation to generation. There was
neither progress nor invention, nor increase of poht-
ical wisdom. Old forms were preserved, old customs
adhered to. Whatever they gained upon one point
they lost upon another, leaving the second genera¬
tion but little wiser than the first. The Iroquois, in
some respects, were in advance of their red neigh¬
bors. They had attempted the establishment of
their institutions upon a broader basis, and abeady
men of high capacity had sprung up among them,
as their political system unfolded. If their Indian
empire had been suffered to work out its own re¬
sults, it is still problematical whether the vast pow¬
er they would have accumulated, and the intellect
which would have been developed by their diversi¬
fied affairs, would not, together, have been suffi-
CaVI] PEOSPECTS AT THE DISCOVEET. 143
ciently potent to draw tlie people from tlie hunter
into the agricultural state. The hunter state is the
zero of human society, and while the red man was
hound by its spell, there was no hope of his eleva¬
tion.
In a speculative point of view, the institutions.- of
the Iroquois assume an interesting aspect. Would
they, at maturity, have emancipated the people from
their strange infatuation for a hunter life ; as those
of the Toltecs and Aztecs had before effected the
disenthralment of those races in the latitudes of
Mexico ? It cannot be denied that there are some
grounds for the belief that their institutions would
eventually have ripened into civilization. The Iro¬
quois, at all times, have manifested sufficient intel¬
lect to promise a high degree of improvement, if it
had once become awakened and directed to right
pursuits. Centuries, however, might have been
requisite to effect the change.
But their institutions have a real, a present value,
for what they were, iiTespective of what they might
have become. The Iroquois were our predecessors
in the sovereignty. Our country they once called
their country, our rivers and lakes were their rivers
and lakes, our hills and intervales were also theirs.
Before us, they enjoyed the beautiful scenery spread
out between the Hudson and Niagara, in its wonder¬
ful diversity from the pleasing to the sublime. Be¬
fore us, were they invigorated by our climate, and
were nourished by the bounties of the earth, the
forest and the stream. The tie by which we are
[Book L
thus connected carries with it the duty of doing
justice to their memory, by preserving., their name
and deeds, their customs and their institutions, lest
they perish from remembrance. We cannot wish
to tread ignorantly upon those extinguished coun¬
cil-fires, whose light, in the days of aboriginal do¬
minion, was visible over half the continent.
The political structures of our primitive inhabi¬
tants have, in general, proved exceedingly unsub¬
stantial. Isolated nations, by some superiority of
institutions, or casual advantage of location, sprang
up with an energetic gi’owth, and for a season spread
their dominion far and wide. After a brief period
of prosperity, they were borne back by adverse
fortune into their original obscurity ; thus rendering
these boundless territories the constant scene of
human conflict, and of the rise and fall of Indian
sovereignties. It was reserved for the Iroquois to
rest themselves upon a more durable foimdation, by
the establishment of a League. This alliance be¬
tween their nations they cemented by the imperish¬
able bands of tribal relationship. At the epoch of
Saxon occupation, they were rapidly building up
an empire, which threatened the absorption or ex¬
termination of the whole Indian family east of the
Mississippi. Their power had become sufficient to
set at defiance all hostile invasions from contiguous
nations ; and the League itself, while it suffered no
loss of numbers by emigrating bands, was endued
with a capacity for indefinite expansion. At the
periods of their separate discovery, the Aztecs on
Ch. VI.]
tlie soutli, and the Iroquois in the north were the
only Indian races upon the continent, whose institu¬
tions promised, at maturity, to ripen into civilization.
Such were the condition and prospects of this Indian
League, when Hendrick Hudson, more than two
centuries since (1609,) sailed up the river which
constituted their eastern boundary. This silent
voyage of the navigator may be regarded as the
opening event in the series, which resulted in re¬
versing the political prospects of the Ho-de' -no-saw-
nee^ and in introducing into their Long House an
invader, more relentless in his purposes, and more
invincible in arms, than the red man against whose
assaults it had been erected.
Their council-fires, so far as they are emblematical
of civil jurisdiction, have long since been extin¬
guished, their empire has terminated, and the shades
of evening are now gathering thickly over the scat¬
tered and feeble remnants of this once powerful
League. Kace has yielded to race, the inevitable re¬
sult of the contact of the civilized with the hunter
life. Who shall relate with what pangs of regret
they yielded up, from river to river, and from lake
to lake, this fair broad domain of their fathers.
The Iroquois will soon be lost as a people, in that
night of impenetrable darkness in which so many
Indian races have been enshrouded. Already their
country has been appropriated, their forests cleared,
and their trails obliterated. The residue of this
proud and gifted race, who still linger around their
native seats, are destined to fade away, until they
146 STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE. [Book I.
become eradicated as an Indian stock. We shall
ere long look backward to the Iroquois, as a race
blotted from existence ; but to remember them as a
people whose sachems had no cities, whose religion
had no temples, and whose government had no
record.
Book II, Chapter I
Faith of the Iroquois. — Belief in the Great Spirit. — The
Evil-Minded, He'-no, the Thunderer. — Ga'-o, Spirit of the
Winds. — The Three Sisters. — The Invisible Aids. — Witches.
— Legendary Literature. — Immortality of the Soul. — Fu¬
ture Punishments. — Moral Sentiments. — Burial Customs. —
Abode of the Great Spirit. — Washington. — Spirituality of
their Faith. — Its Influence.
The mind is, by nature, full of religious tenden¬
cies. Man, when left to the guidance of his own
inward persuasions, searches after the Author of his
being, and seeks to comprehend the purposes of
his existence, and his final destiny. In every age
and condition of society, the best thoughts of the
most gifted intellects have been expended upon re¬
ligious subjects. The conclusions reached by re-
fiective mind, under the inspiration of the works
of nature, are propagated from generation to gener¬
ation, until they grow, by natural enlargement, into
a system of fixed Beliefs. Upon them is afterwards
engrafted a system of Worship. The two fiourish
side by side with perpetual vigor. They become
[Book II.
interwoven with the civil and social institutions of
men, and by nurture and habit acquire such a firm
hold upon the affections, that they form a part of
the living, thinking, acting mind. Without a knowl¬
edge, therefore, of the religious life of a people,
their institutions, and their political and domestic
transactions would be wholly inexplicable.
Remarkable features are exhibited in the reh-
gious system of the Iroquois, when contrasted with
other systems of similar origin. Emanating from
the mind of man alone, originating in the simplest
form of human society, it would naturally be en¬
cumbered by the vagaries of fancy, and be upheld
by affection, rather than logic. But man, shut out
from the light of revelation, and left to construct
his own theology, will discover some part of the
truth, as shadowed forth by the works of nature.
This will illuminate his footsteps, in proportion to
his appreciation of its excellence, and his faithful
adherence to its divine monitions. The faith and
worship of the Iroquois are entitled to a favorable
consideration, by reason of the principles of behef
which they recognized, and the fundamental truths
which they inculcated. Established upon some of
those luminous principles which lie at the founda¬
tion of sound theology, the blemishes in their spir¬
itual edifice are compensated, in some degree, by
the purity of its elements.
The Grreeks discovered the traces of divinity in
every object in nature; in the affections and pas¬
sions, in the elements of earth and air, in the rivulet,
Ch.L]
tte mountain and the sea. Ascending from these
types to their several supposed originals, they grasp¬
ed at Deity in a multitude of fragments, as proclaim¬
ed fry the divided works of creation. Failing, with
all the acumen and inspiration of their marvellous in¬
tellect, to raise their mental vision above Olympus,
and to ascend from united nature up to the indivisi¬
ble and Eternal One, they perfected and beautified
that stupendous production of genius and credu¬
lity, the polytheism of the ancient world.
Between the popular belief of the ancients and
that of the Iroquois there are some coincidences.
This similarity of ideas is observable in a portion
of their legends and fables, but more especially in
their notions of the spiritual world. Like the an¬
cients, they peopled the invisible world with spirit¬
ual existences. In their inferior spiritualities, they
fell infinitely below the splendid creations of the
ancient mythology ; but in their knowledge of the
Supreme Being, they rose, in many respects, far
above the highest conceptions of the ancient philos¬
ophy. It will be at once conceded, that the Supreme
Intelligence announced by Anaxagoras, Socrates and
Plato, the Nnjimn JPrcBstantissinKB Mentis of the
ancient philosophical religionists, was in itself a more
vague and indefinite conception, than that divine
Being worshipped by the entire red race under the
appellation of the Great Spirit.
Upon the first great question in theology, the
Stoic, the Epicurean, and the other sects of philoso¬
phers equally reached the same fundamental conclu-
[Book II.
sion, esse JDeos^ “ tlie Gods exist.” This truth, they
affirmed, was not only revealed by the works of na¬
ture, but it was also innate, and written in the mind
of man.^ But in a multitude of Gods, each clothed
with separate and distinct offices and powers, and
all subject to a gradation in rank, the popular belief
reposed. The idea of one Supreme Being was a
sublime induction of philosophy, and far above the
level of popular intelligence. This great truth,
therefore, failed to become even feebly incorporated
with the overshadowing mythology of antiquity.
With the red race, however, the belief not only pre¬
vailed that a Great Spirit existed, but they made
the same induction from the works of nature the
foundation of their religious system.
There is also a coincidence of belief in relation
to the origin of spiritual existences. The ancient
mythology taught, that the Gods were born, nativos
esse Deos^ and furnished, at the same time, their
genealogy, with all the minuteness of legendary
license. The Iroquois, also, believed that the Great
Spirit was born; and tradition has handed down
the narrative, with embellishments of fancy which
Hesiod himself would not have disdained.^
1 Omnibus enim innatum est et in
animo quasi insculptum, esse Decs.
Cicero De Natura Deorum, Lib. ii.
cap. iv. Solus enim vidit, (Epicurus,)
primum esse Deos, quod in omnium
animis eorum notionem impressisset
ipsa natura. Ib. Lib. i. c. xvi. Quid
enim potest esse tam apertum tamque
perspicuum, quum caelum suspexi-
mus, caelestiaque contemplati sumus,
quam esse aliquod numen praestan-
tissimae mentis, quo haec segantur ?
Ib. Lib. ii. c. ii.
* The tradition of the birth of the
Good Spirit and the Evil Spirit is
much the same among the numerous"
Indian races within the Republic. It
is not peculiar to the Iroquois.
Cn. I.]
Whetlier tlie Gods ruled tlie universe, and were in¬
terested in the affairs of men, was a disputed question
in the ancient schools. The Epicureans taught that
they were unmindful of all human transactions, and
spent their existence in ease and pleasure.^ But the
Stoics took the opposite view, and not only affirmed
their constant supervision and intervention in human
affairs, but also their active administration of the
works of nature.^ This was also the popular belief.
The notions of the Iroquois approached nearest to
the latter. In err@r in ascribing to the Great Spirit
a finite origin, and with feeble conceptions of his at¬
tributes, they yet believed him to be their creator,
ruler and preserver ; and that in him was the re¬
siduum of power.
The creation of the world was also a subject
which divided the ancient schools. In a belief in
the eternity of matter, they, in general, concurred.
Plato and the Stoics, however, taught that the visi¬
ble universe was fashioned and constructed by the
direct agency of God. This opinion, not of the
creation of matter, but of the formation of the world,
encountered the ridicule of the Epicureans.^ This
1 Nihil enim agit: nullis occupa- neque vero id solum, sed etiam ab
tionibua est implicatus ; nulla opera iisden vitae hominum consul! et pro-
molitur : sua sapientia et virtute videri. Id. Lib. i. cap. ii.
gaudet : habet exploratum, fore se ® Quibus enim oculis animi intueri
semper turn in maximis, turn in potuit vester Plato fabricam illam tan-
aeternis voluptatibus. Hunc Deum ti operis, qua construi a Deo atque aedi-
rite beatum dixerimus. Cic. De. Nat. ficari mundum facit ? Quae molitio?
Deo. Lib. i. cap. xix. quae ferramenta ? qui rectes ? quae ma-
® Sunt autem alii plulosophi, et hi chinae ? qui ministri tanti muneris fue-
quidem magni atque nobilis, qui Deo- runt? Quemadmodum autem obedire
rum mente atque ratione omnem mun- et parere voluntati architect! aer, ignis,
dum administrari et regi censeant : aqua, terra potuerunt. Id. 1. i c. viii.
7*
[Book II.
is one of those questions with which human wisdom
is unable to cope. In their religious system, the
Iroquois have but little to do with the creation of
the visible universe. According to the tradition,
the earth grew miraculously, a self-prepared abode
for the Great Spirit. Concerning the universe
which existed before the advent of the Great
Spirit, they pretend to no knowledge. To the
Great Spirit, however, the Iroquois ascribed creative
power. He created not only the animal and vege¬
table world, but also adapted the elements, and the
whole visible universe to the wants of man.
That the Indian, without the aid of revelation,
should have arrived at a fixed belief in the existence
of one Supreme Being, has ever been matter of
surprise and admiration. In the existence of the
Great Spirit, an invisible but ever-present Deity,
the universal red race believed. His personal exist¬
ence became a first principle, an intuitive belief,
which neither the lapse of centuries could efface,
nor inventions of man could corrupt. By the dif¬
fusion of this great truth, if the Indian did not es¬
cape the spell of superstition, which resulted from
his imperfect knowledge of the Deity, and his ig¬
norance of natural phenomena ; yet he was saved
from the deepest of all barbarisms, an idolatrous
worship. The Iroquois believed in the constant
superintending care of the Great Spirit. He ruled
and administered the world, and the affairs of the
red race. As Moses taught that Jehovah was the
God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and of his chosen
Ch.L]
people, so tlie Iroquois regarded tlie Great Spirit as
tlie God of tlie Indian alone. They looked up to
him as the author of their being, the source of
their temporal blessings, and the future dispenser
of the felicities of their heavenly home. To him
they rendered constant thanks and homage for the
changes in the seasons, the fruits of the earth, the
preservation of their hves, and for their social
privileges, and political prosperity; and to him they
addressed their prayers for the continuance of his pro¬
tecting care. Their knowledge of the attributes of
the Great Spirit was necessarily Jimited and imper¬
fect. Of his goodness and beneficence they had a
full impression, and some notions, also, of his jus¬
tice and perfection. But they could not fuUy con¬
ceive of the omnipresence of the Great Spirit, ex¬
cept through the instrumentality of a class of infe¬
rior spiritual existences, by whom he was surrounded.
His power was evidenced by the creation of man.
He was also believed to be self-existent, and immor¬
tal. The ennobling and exalting views of the De¬
ity which are now held by enlightened and Christian
nations would not be expected among a people ex¬
cluded from the light of revelation. In the simple
truths of natural religion they were thoroughly in¬
doctrinated, and many of these truths were held in
great purity and simplicity. Such is the power of
truth over the human mind, and the harmony of all
truth, that the Indian, without the power of logic,
reached ^ome of the most important conclusions of
[Book IL
pHlosopliy, and drew down from heaven some of
the highest truths of revelation.
While the religious system of the Iroquois taught
the existence of the Great Spirit Ha^en-ne' it
also recognized the personal existence of an Evil
Spirit, Ha^-go-ate'-ge\ the Evil-minded. Accord¬
ing to the legend of their finite origin, they were
brothers, born at the same birth, and destined to an
endless existence. To the Evil Spirit, in a limited
degree, was ascribed creative power. As the Great
Spirit created man, and all useful animals, and pro¬
ducts of the earth, so the Evil Spirit created all
monsters, poisonous reptiles, and noxious plants.
In a word, while the former made everything that
was good and subservient, the latter formed every¬
thing that was bad and pernicious to man. One
delighted in virtue, and in the happiness of his crea¬
tures, to which end he exercised over them his un¬
ceasing protection. The other was committed to
deeds of evil, and was ever watchful to scatter
discord among men, and multiply their calamities.
Over the Evil-minded the Great Spirit exercised no
positive authority, although possessed of the power
to overcome him, if disposed to its exertion. Each
ruled an independent kingdom, with powers unde¬
rived. Man’s free agency stood between them, with
which, in effect, he controlled his own destiny. A
life of trust and confidence in the Great Spirit, and
of obedience to his commands, afforded a refuge and
* This -is an original uncompounded word, and in the Seneca dialect. It
signifies simply “ A Ruler.”
Ch. I] HE'-NO, THE THUNDERER. 157
a shelter to the pious Indian against the machinar
tions of the Evil-minded.
Inferior spiritual beings were also recognized in
the theology of the Iroquois. Though not as ac¬
curately described and classified as those of the an¬
cient mythology, they yet exhibit with them some
singular coincidences ; although these coincidences,
real or imaginary, show nothing but the similarity
of human ideas in similar conditions of society.
They were classified into good and evil, the former
being the assistants and subordinates of the Great
Spirit, while the latter were the emissaries and
dependents of the Evil-minded. To some of them
was assigned a bodily form, a “ local habitation, and
a name.” To the former class of these spiritual ex¬
istences, they were wont to render their acknowl¬
edgments at their annual festivals for imagined
favors, and to supplicate of the Great Spirit the
continuance of their watchful care. In the creation
of these subordinate beings, the Iroquois manifest¬
ed their knowledge of the necessity of an Omni¬
present Ruler ; and at the same time they exhib¬
ited their limited comprehension of infinite power.
Through these instrumentahties, they believed the
Great Spirit was enabled, with ease and conveni¬
ence, to administer the affairs of nature, and of man.
To He'-no^ he committed the thunderbolt ; at once
the voice of admonition, and the instrument of ven¬
geance. He also intrusted to him the formation of
the cloud, and the gift of rain. By He'-no^ was the
earth to be cooled and refreshed, vegetation sus-
[Book IL
tained, tlie hai’Test ripened, and the fruits of the
earth matured. The terror of the Thunderer was
held over evil-doers, hut especially over witches.
With power to inflict the most instantaneous and
fearful punishment, he was regarded as the aven¬
ger of the deeds of evil. He is represented as
having the form of a man, and as wearing the cos¬
tume of a warrior. Upon his head he wore a ma¬
gical feather, which rendered him invulnerable
against the attaclis of the Evil-minded. On his
back he carried a basket filled with fragments of
chert rock, which he launched at evil spiiits and
witches, whenever he discovered them, as he rode
in the clouds. In the spring-time when the see(H
were committed to the ground, there was always
an invocation of that he would water them,
and nourish their grovdh. At the harvest festival
they returned thanks to He’ -no for the gift of rain.
They also rendered their thanks to the Great Spirit
for the harvest, and supplicated him to continue to
them the watchful care of the Thunderer. There
is a fanciful legend in relation to He'-no^ to the effect
that he once made his habitation in a cave under
Niagai’a Falls, behind the sheet, where he dwelt
amid the grateful noise and din of waters. The
Great Spirit gave to him three assistants, who have
continued nameless, to enable him to maintain a more
vigilant supervision over the important interests
committed to his guai'dianship. One of these, the
legend declares, was partly of human, and partly
Ch. L] GA'-OH, the spirit of the winds. 159
of celestial origin.^ To bring He' -no nearer to tbeir
affections, the Iroquois always addressed him under
the appellation of Grandfather, and styled them¬
selves his grandchildren. In every act of his, how¬
ever, they recognized the hand of Hd-wen-ne'-yu.
Another of the spiritual creations of the Iroquois
is recognized in Gd'-oh, the Spirit of the Winds.
He is, also, a mere instrumentality, through whom
the Great Spirit moves the elements. Having a
human form, with the face of an old man, GdJ-oli is
represented as sitting in solitary confinement, sur¬
rounded by a tangle of discordant winds, and ever
impatient of restraint. His residence, Da-yo-dd'-do-
* The legend is as follows: A
young maiden residing at Ga'-u-gwa, a
village above Niagara Falla, at the
mouth of Cayuga creek, had been
contracted to an old man of ugly
manners and disagreeable person.
As the marriage was hateful to her,
and, by the customs of the nation,
there was no escape, she resolved
upon self-destruction. Launching a
bark canoe into the Niagara, she seat¬
ed herself within it, and composing
her mind for the frightful descent,
directed it down the current. The
rapid waters soon swept them over
the falls, and the canoe was seen to
fall into the abyss below, but the
maiden had disappeared. Before she
reached the waters underneath, she
was caught in a blanket by He' -no
and his two assistants, and carried
without injury to the home , of the
Thunderer, behind the fall. Her
beauty attracted one of the depend¬
ents of He' -no, who willingly joined
them in marriage.
For several years before this event,
the people at Qa'-u-gwa had been
troubled with an annual pestilence,
and the source of the scourge had
baffled all conjecture. He' -no, at the
expiration of a year, revealed to her
the cause, and out of compassion to
the people, sent her back to them, to
make known the cause, and the rem¬
edy. He told her that a monstrous
serpent dwelt under the village, and
made his annual repast upon the
bodies of the dead which were buried
by its side. That to insure a bounti¬
ful feast, he went forth once a year,
and poisoned the waters of the Ni¬
agara, and also of the Cayuga creek,
whereby the pestilence was created.
The people were directed to move
to the Buffalo creek. He also gave
her careful directions touching the
education of the child, of which she
was to become the mother. With
these directions she departed on her
mission.
After the people had removed as
directed, the great serpent, disap¬
pointed of his food, put his head
[Book IL
gowa^ the “ Great Home of the Winds,” is stationary,
in a quai’ter of the heavens toward the west. Sur¬
rounded and compressed by the elements, he ever
and anon struggles to free himself from theii* entan¬
glement. When perfectly quiescent, the winds are
at rest. A slight motion sends forth the breeze,
which is wafted gently over the face of the earth.
When he struggles with restlessness and impatience,
the strong wind goes forth to move the clouds, rujffle
the waters, and shake the foliage of the forest. But
when his restlessness mounts up to frenzy, he puts
forth his utmost strength to shake off the confining
element. These mighty throes of Go! -oh send forth
above the groand to discover tbe rea¬
son, and found that the village was
deserted. Having scented their trail,
and discovered its course, he went
forth into the lake, and up the Buffalo
creek, in open search of his prey.
While in this narrow channel. He' -no
discharged upon the monster a ter¬
rific thunderbolt which inflicted a
mortal wound. The Senecas yet
point to a place in the creek where
the banka are semicircular on either
side, as the spot where the serpent,
after he was struck, turning to escape
into the deep waters of the lake,
shoved out the banks on either side.
Before he succeeded in reaching the
lake, the repeated attacks of the
Thunderer took effect, and the mon¬
ster was slain.
The huge body of tbe serpent
floated down the stream, and lodged
upon the verge of the cataract,
stretching nearly across the river. A
part of the body arched backwards
near the northern shore in a semicir¬
cle. The raging waters thus dammed
up by the body broke through the
rocks behind', and thus the whole
verge of the fall upon which the body
rested was precipitated with it into
the abyss beneath. In this manner,
says the legend, was formed the
Horse-Shoe fall.
Before this event there was a pas¬
sage behind the sheet from one shore
to the other. This passage-way was
not only broken up, but the home of
He -no was also destroyed, in the gen¬
eral crash. Since then his habitation
has been in the west.
Tlie child of the maiden grew up
to boyhood, and was found to possess
the power of darting the lightning at
his wiU. It had been the injunction
of He' -no that he should be reared
in retirement, and not be allowed to
mingle in the strifes of men. On a
certain occasion having been beset by
a playmate with great vehemence,
he transfixed him with a thunder¬
bolt. He' -no immediately translated
him to the clouds, and made him the
third assistant Thunderer.
Ch. I.]
tlie blasts wbicb sweep tbe plain, lay low the oak
upon tbe mountain side, and dasb tbe waters against
tbe sky. Go! -oh is represented, however, as a be¬
neficent being, ever mindful of tbe will of tbe Great
Spirit, and solicitous to fulfil bis commands.^
Perhaps tbe most beautiful conception in tbe my¬
thology of tbe Iroquois, is that in relation to tbe
Three Sisters, tbe Spirit of Corn, tbe Spirit of
Beans, and tbe Spirit of Squashes. These plants
were regarded as tbe special gift of Horwen-ne'-yu ;
and they believed that the care of each was intrust¬
ed, for tbe welfare of tbe Indian, to a separate
Spirit. They are supposed to have tbe forms of
beautiful females, to be very fond of each other,
and to delight to dwell together. This last belief
is illustrated by tbe natural adaptation of tbe plants
themselves to grow up together in tbe same field,
and perhaps from tbe same bill. Their apparel was
made of tbe leaves of their respective plants ; and
in tbe growing season they were believed to visit
tbe fields, and dwell among them. This triad is
known under tbe name of De-o-ha'-ho^ which signi¬
fies Our Life, or Our Supporters. They are never
mentioned separately, except by description, as they
have no individual names. There is a legend in
relation to corn, that it was originally of easy cul¬
tivation, yielded abundantly, and bad a grain ex¬
ceedingly rich with oil. Tbe Evil-minded, being
1 JEolus naturally suggests him¬
self to the reader, although the
analogy is slight.
“ Hie vasto rex .®olii3 antro
Luctanles rentoa, tempestatesque sonoras
Imperio premit, ac vinclis et carcere fraenat.”
.^Eneid, Lib. i. 62.
[Book 1L
envious of this great gift of -yii to man,
went fortli into tlie fields, and spread over it a
universal bliglit. Since tlien it lias been harder to
cultivate, yields less abundantly, and has lost its
original richness. To this day, when the rustling
wind waves the corn leaves with a moaning sound,
the pious Indian fancies that he hears the Spirit of
Com, in her compassion for the red man, still be¬
moaning, with unavailing regrets, her blighted
fruitfulness.
Among the inhabitants of the spiritual world,
with which the L’oquois smTOunded themselves,
may be enumerated the Spirits of medicine, of fire,
and of water, the Spirit of each of the difierent
species of trees, of each of the species of shrubs
bearing fruit, and of the different herbs and plants.
Thus there was the Spirit of the oak, of the hemlock,
and of the maple, of the whortleberry and of the
raspberry, and also of the spearmint, and of tobac¬
co. Most of the objects in nature were thus placed
under the watchful care of some protecting Spirit.
Some of them were made tangible to the senses, by
giving to them a bodily form and specific duties ;
as the Spirit of springs, and of each of the several
fruit trees. But the most of them were feebly
imagined existences. In their worship, the Iroquois
were accustomed to return their thanks to these
subordinates of Hdrwenrne' -yu^ under the general
name of Ho-no-che-no'-heh. This term signifies “ the
Invisible Aids,” and included the whole spfritual
world, from He’-no the Thunderer, down to the
Ch. I] THE INVISIBLE AIDS.-EYIL SPIBITS. 163
Spirit of the strawberry. But few of them had
specific names, or were mentioned in their worship,
except conjointly. The Iroquois appear to have
had but a faint conception of the omnipresence of
the Great Spirit, as elsewhere observed ; or of any
individual power sufficiently potent to administer,
unassisted, the stupendous works of creation, and
the complicated affairs of man. In part from this
cause, undoubtedly, they believed that the Great
Spirit had surrounded himself with subordinate
spiritual beings of his own creation, to whom he
intrusted the immediate supervision of the various
works of nature. He thus rendered himself, in a
limited sense, omnipresent, and ruled and regulated,
with ease and convenience, the works of creation.
These Spirits were never objects of worship. The
Iroquois regarded them merely as the unseen assist¬
ants of Uorwen-ne'-yu^ and the executors of his
will.
Evil spirits were believed to be the creations of
Horne-go-ate’-geTi. Pestilence and disease were sup¬
posed to be the work of evil spirits. Witches and
enchanters were believed to be possessed with them.
There were also the Spirits of poisonous plants and
roots. All the agencies of evil were brought into
existence by, and held under the dominion of the
Evil-minded. To counteract their machinations,
the efforts of the Great Spirit and his spiritual host
were incessantly put forth. At their religious fes¬
tivals, the Iroquois invoked Ha-wen-n^ -yu to shield
them against their secret designs. “ Great Spirit,
[Book U.
master of all things, visible and invisible ; Great
Spirit, master of other spirits, whether good or evil ;
command the good spirits to favor thy children;
command the evil spirits to keep at a distance fi’om
them.” ^
The Iroquois believed that tobacco was given
to them as the means of communication with the
spiiitual world. By burning tobacco they could
send up their petitions with its ascending incense,
to the Great Spirit, and render their acknowledg¬
ments acceptably for his blessing. Without this in¬
strumentality, the ear of Horwen-iie' could not
be gained. In like manner they returned their
thanks at each recurring festival to the Invisible
Aids, for their friendly offices, and protecting care.
It was also their custom to return thanks to the
trees, shimbs and plants, to the springs, rivers and
streams, to the fii’e and wind, and to the sun, moon
and stars; in a word, to every object in nature,
which ministered to theii’ wants, and thus awakened
a feeling of gratitude. But this was done without
the intervention of the incense of tobacco. They
addressed the object itself.
A belief in witches is to this day, and always has
been, one of the most deeply-seated notions in the
minds of the Iroquois. The popular belief on this
subject rose to the most extravagant degree of the
marvellous, and the supernatural. Any person,
whether old or young, male or female, might be¬
come possessed of an evil spirit, and be transformed
^ La Hontan.
Ch. I.]
into a witcli. A person tlius possessed could assume,
at pleasure, tlie form of any animal, bird or reptile,
and having executed Ms nefarious purpose, could
resume Ms original form, or, if necessary to escape
pursuit, could transmute Mmself into an inanimate
object. They were endued with the power of doing
evil, and were wholly bent upon deeds of wicked¬
ness. When one became a witch, he ceased to be
himself. According to the current belief, he was
not only willing to take the life of Ms nearest friend,
but such an one was the preferred object of Ms
vengeance. The means of death employed was an
unseen poison. Such was the universal terror of
witches, that their lives were forfeited by the laws
of the L’oquois. Any one who discovered the act,
might not only destroy the witch, but could take
to himself the dangerous power of deciding who it
was. To this day, it is next to impossible, by any
process of reasoning, to divest the mind of a Seneca
of his deep-seated belief in witches.^
There is a current belief among the Iroquois, that
these demons are banded together in a secret and
systematic organization, which has subsisted for
ages ; that they have periodical meetings, an initi¬
ation ceremony, and a novitiate fee. These meetings
were held at night, and the fee of the neophyte was
^ But a year since a woman was fifty years. Not the least singular
shot on the Allegany (Seneca) reser- feature of the case is that they some-
vation, on the pretence of witchcraft, times confess the act. There may be
Such instances have been frequent some foundation for this strange de-
among the Senecas within the last lusion in the phenomena of nature.
[Book II.
the life of Ms nearest and dearest Mend, to be taken
with poison, on the eve of Ms admission.
The proneness of the Indian mind to supersti¬
tious beliefe is cMe% to be ascribed to theii’
legendary literatui*e. The fables wMch have been
handed down from generation to generation, to be
rehearsed to the young from year to year, would fill
volumes. These fabulous tales, for exuberance of
fancy, and extravagance of invention, not only sur¬
pass the fireside stories of all other people, but to
their diversity and number there is apparently no
limit. There were fables of a race of pigmies who
dwelt within the earth, but who were endued with
such herculean strength as to tear up by its roots
the forest oak, and shoot it from their bows ; fables
of a buffido of such huge dimensions as to tM’esh
down the forest in his march; fables of ferocious
flying-heads, winging themselves through the air ;
of serpents paralyzing by a look ; of a monster mus-
quito, who thrust Ms bill through the bodies of his
victims, and drew their blood in the twinkling of
an eye. There were fables of a race of stone giants
who dwelt in the north ; of a monster bear, more
terrific than the bufihlo ; of a monster lizard, more
destructive than the serpent. There were tales of
witches, and supernatural visitations, together with
marvellous stories of personal adventure. Super-
added to the tables of this description, were legends
upon a thousand subjects, in wMch fact was embel¬
lished with fiction. These legends entered into the
affairs of private life, and of individuals, and were
Ch. L]
explanatory of a multitude of popular beliefs. Min¬
gled up witb this mass of fable, were their historical
traditions. This branch of their unwritten litera¬
ture is both valuable and interesting. These tradi¬
tions are remarkably tenacious of the truth, and
between them all there is a striking harmony of
facte. Any one who takes occasion to compare
parts of these traditions with concurrent history,
will be surprised at their accuracy, whether the
version be from the Oneida, the Onondaga, the Sen¬
eca, or the Mohawk. The embellishments gained
by their transmission from hand to hand are usually
separable from the substance, and the latter is en¬
titled to credence. With these fables, legends and
traditions the Indian youth was familiarized from
infancy. His mind became stored and crowded with
bewildering fictions. Without books, and without
employment, in the intervals between the hunt, the
council, and the warlike expedition, the mind natu¬
rally fell back upon this unwritten literature of the
wilderness. The rehearsal of these marvellous tales
furnished the chief entertainment at the fireside in
the Indian village, and also at the lodge far hid in
the depths of the forest. The credulity of youth
would know no limits, when the narrator himself
credited the tale he was relating. Growing into
manhood under such intellectual influences, the
young warrior would not readily discriminate be¬
tween that which was too marvellous for belief and
that which was consistent with truth, but would
adopt the whole as equally veritable. That early
[Book IL
and constant familiarity with snch a mass of nncor-
rectcd fancies should beget a permanent tendency
of mind to fall into superstitions beliefe, is far less
surprising than would be an exemption from all such
delusions.
From a vague and indefinable dread, these fables
were never related in the summer season, when the
imagination was peculiaily susceptible. As soon as
the buds had opened on the trees, these stories were
hushed, and their historical traditions substituted.
But when the leaves began to fall, their rehearsal
again furnished the chief amusement of the hours
of leisure in Indian society.
The immortality of the soul was another of the
fixed beliefs of the Iroquois. This notion has pre¬
vailed generally among all the red races, under differ¬
ent forms, and with different degrees of distinctness.
“The happy home beyond the settiag sun,” had
cheered the heart, and lighted the expiring eye of
the Indian, before the ships of Columbus had borne
the cross to this western world. This sublime con¬
clusion is another of those truths, written, as it were,
by the Deity, in the mind of man, and one e^ily to
be deciphered from the page of nature by unper-
vei*ted reason. This truth has always been taught
among the Iroquois, as a fundamental article of faith.
In connection with the immortality of the soul,
must be placed their belief in future punishments.
This is maintained to have been a part of their an¬
cient faith, but with how much truth it is difficult
to determine. It is now taught by the unchristian-
Ch. L]
ized portion of tlie Iroquois, as an essential part of
their belief
The worship of the Iroquois, it is believed, has
undergone no important change for centuries. It is
the same, in all respects, at this day, that it was at
the commencement of their intercourse with the
whites. But their faith appears to have suffered
some enlargement. They seem to have silently
adopted such thoughts of the missionaries as could
be interwoven harmoniously with their own creed,
while at the same time they firmly and constantly
excluded all those beliefs which were inconsistent
with their own religious system, as a whole. The
principal illustration of this position is to be found
in their present views of the nature and office of
punishment. They believe that the wicked, after
death, pass into the dark realm of Ha-ne-go-ate' -geJi^
there to undergo a process of punishment for their
evil deeds. Those who are not consumed by the
degree of punishment infiicted, are, after this purifi¬
cation, translated to the abode of the Great Spirit,
and to eternal felicity. Evil deeds in this life are
neutralized by meritorious acts. After the balance
is struck between them, if the good predominate,
the spirit passes direct to Horwm-ne' -yurgeh ; but
if the bad overbalance, it goes at once to Hd-nis-
JiOrO-no'-geJi, the dwelling-place of the Evil minded,
where punishments are meted out to it in proportion
to the magnitude of its offences. Certain crimes,
like those of witchcraft and murder, were punished
eternally, but others temporarily. The resemblance
[Book IL
between this system of punishment and the pur¬
gatory of 'the Catholic church leads to the infer¬
ence, that they derived from the Jesuits some of
their ideas of the nature and office of punishment,
and of its limitations. While, therefore, the Iro¬
quois may have obtained more systematic and en¬
larged views upon these subjects from without, at
the same time, as they affirm, they may always have
believed that the wicked were excluded from heaven,
and sent to a place of infelicity. Their traditions
tend to establish a belief in future punishments, as
a tenet of their ancient faith.
There is another practice, now universal among
the Iroquois, which appears still more decisively to
be of Jesuit origin. It is the confession of sins.
Before each of their periodical religious festivals,
there is made a general and public confession.
Several days before the time designated for the fes¬
tival, the people assemble by appointment, and each
one in turn, who has a confession to make, rising,
and taking a string of white wampum in his hand,
acknowledges his faults and transgressions, and
publicly professes a purpose of amendment. The
white wampum is the emblem of purity and sinceri¬
ty. With it he confirms and records his words.
The absolution or forgiveness of sins formed no
part of the motive or object in the confession. It
had reference to the future conduct exclusively.
One who was willing to confess a fault from a sense
of religious duty, would, by the act, strengthen his
mind against future temptation. This custom has
Ch. L] MORAL SENTIMENTS. 171
prevailed so long among them, that they have lost
its origin. It contains no such analogy to the prac¬
tices of any Christian community as to compel us
to ascribe it to external influences, but yet it has
about it so much of the fragrance of Christianity,
that it awakens in the mind a doubt of its Indian
origin. It is by no means certain, however, but
that it is one of their own primitive religious cus¬
toms, under a modified form.
Reverence for the aged was also one of the pre¬
cepts of the ancient faith. Among the roving tribes
of the wilderness, the old and helpless were fre¬
quently abandoned, and in some cases, hurried out
of existence, as an act of greater kindness than de¬
sertion. But the Iroquois, at the epoch of the for¬
mation of the League, resided in permanent villages,
which afforded a refuge for the aged. One of the
prominent aims of their first lawgiver, Da-goruo-
wef-dd^ was to bind the i)eople together by the family
ties of relationship, and thus create among them an
universal spirit of hospitality, and a lasting desire
of social intercourse. After the establishment of
the Confederacy, certainly, these practices never
prevailed among the Iroquois. On the contrary,
their religious teachers inculcated the duty of pro¬
tecting their aged parents, as divinely .enjoined.
“It is the will of the Great Spirit that you reverence
the aged, even though they be as helpless as in¬
fants.”^
The obedience of children, their instruction in
• Sose-ha'-wii, (Johnson.)
1T2
SPISIT or THE LEASUE.
[Book IT.
virtuoiis principles, kindness to the orpkan, kospi-
tality to all, and a common brotkerkood, 'svere
among tke doctrines keld up for acceptance by tkek
religious instructors. Tkese precepts Trere taugkt
as tke win of tke Great Spirit, and obedience to
tkeir requirements as acceptable in Ms sigkt. “ If
yon tie up tke clotkes of an orpkan ckild, tke Great
Spirit will notice it, and reward you for it,” “ To
adopt orphans, and bring tkem up in virtuous ways,
is pleasing to tke Great Spmt.” “If a stranger
wander about your abode, welcome kim to youi*
kome, be hospitable towards Mm, speak to kim with
kind words, and forget not always to mention tke
Great Spirit.” ^
Respect for tke dead was another element of then*
faith. At various periods of tkeir history, it has
manifested itself under different and very singular
forms. Tke burial customs of every people interest
the mind. Death is tke great catastrophe of ku*
mamty. And whether man has reached the highest
intellectual elevation, or stdl sits beside tke forest
streamlet, in tke infancy of Ms mental growth, tMs
event seizes upon Ms mind with solemn and absorb¬
ing earnestness. With tke Iroquois different cus¬
toms have prevailed, in relation to tke mode of
burial. At one period they buried in a sitting pos¬
ture, with tke face to tke east. Skeletons are stiU
found m this position, in various parts of tke State,
with a gun barrel resting against tke shoulder ; thus
fixing tke period of tkeir sepulture subsequent to
* Johnson.
Oh.1] BUEIAL customs. 1Y3
the first intercourse of this people with the whites.
It is supposed that this custom was abandoned at
the persuasion of the missionaries, although there
is a tradition ascribing it to a dilfferent cause. An¬
other and more extraordinary mode of burial an¬
ciently prevailed among them. The body of the
deceased was exposed upon a bark scaffolding, erect¬
ed upon poles, or secured upon the limbs of trees,
where it was left to waste to a skeleton. After this
had been effected by the process of decomposition in
the open air, the bones were removed, either to the
former house of the deceased, or to a small bark house
by its side, prepared for their reception. In this
manner the skeletons of the whole family were pre¬
served from generation to generation, by the filial
or parental affection of the living. After the lapse
of a number of years, or in a season of public in¬
security, or on the eve of abandoning a settlement,
it was customary to collect these skeletons from the
whole community around, and consign them to a
common resting-place. To this custom, which was
not confined to the Iroquois, is doubtless to be
ascribed the burrows and bone mounds, which have
been found in such numbers in various parts of the
country. On opening these mounds, the skeletons
are usually found arranged in horizontal layers, a
conical pyramid, those in each layer radiating from
a common centre. In other cases they are found
placed promiscuously.^
1 There are Senecas now residing remember having seen, about sixty
at Tonawanda and Cattaraugus, who years ago, at the latter place, these
174 SPIRIT OP THE LEAGHE. [Book II,
Tlie religious system of tlie Iroquois tauglit, that
it was a journey from earth to heaven of many days’
duration. Originally, it was supposed to be a year,
and the period of momming for the departed was
fixed at that term. At its expiration, it was cus¬
tomary for the relatives of the deceased to hold a
feast; the soul of the departed having reached
heaven, and a state of felicity, there was no longer
any cause for mourning. The spirit of grief was
exchanged for that of rejoicing. In modern times
the mourning period has been reduced to ten days,
and the journey of the spirit is now believed to be
performed in three. The spirit of the deceased was
supposed to hover around the body for a season, be¬
fore it took its final departure ; and not until after
the expiration of a year according to the ancient
belief, and ten days according to the present, did it
become permanently at rest in heaven. A beauti¬
ful custom prevailed in ancient times, of capturing
a bird, and freeing it over the grave on the evening
of the burial, to bear away the spirit to its heavenly
rest. Their notions of the state of the soul when
disembodied, are vague and diversified; but they
aT agree that, during the journey, it required the
same nourishment as while it dwelt in the body.
They, therefore, deposited beside the deceased his
bow and arrows, tobacco and pipe, and necessary
food for the journey. They also painted the face
bark scaffoldings, on which bodies upper Mississippi, and among some
were then exposed. The custom still of the tribes in the far west,
prevails among the Sioux upon the
Ch.L]
and dressed tlie body in its best apparel. A fire
was built upon the grave at night, to enable the
spirit to prepare its food. With these tokens of
affliction, and these superstitious concernments for
the welfare of the deceased, the children of the
forest performed the burial rites of their departed
kindred.^ The wail and the lamentation evidenced
the passionate character of their griefs After the
mourning period had expired, the name of the de¬
ceased was never mentioned, from a sense of deli¬
cacy to the tender feelings of his friends.
Unless the rites of burial were performed, it was
believed that the spirits of the dead wandered for a
time upon the earth, in a state of great unhappi¬
ness. Hence their extreme solicitude to procure
the bodies of their slain in battle.
Heaven was the abode of the Great Spirit, the
final home of the faithful. They believed there
was a road down from heaven to every man’s door.
^ To this universal custom of the
red race, of depositing the valuable
articles of the deceased by his side,
as -well as utensils and vessels to pre¬
pare and contain his food, we are in¬
debted for all the relics we possess
of the earlier epochs of our aboriginal
history. Articles are still disentombed
from the soil from year to year, some
of which reach back to the era of the
Mound Builders.
® In ancient times, the practice pre¬
vailed of addressing the dead before
burial, under the belief that they could
hear, although unable to answer. The
near relatives and friends, or such as
were disposed, approached the body
in turn ; and after the wail had ceased,
they addressed it in a pathetic or
laudatory speech. The practice has
not even yet fallen entirely into dis¬
use. The following address of an Iro¬
quois mother over the body of her
son was made on a recent occasion.
Approaching his inanimate remains
to look upon him for the last time, her
grief for some moments was uncon¬
trollable. Presently, her wailing
ceased, and she thus addressed him :
“My son, listen once more to the
words of thy mother. Thou wert
brought into life with her pains.
Thou wert nourished with her life.
She has attempted to be faithful in
1?6
[Book IL
On tliis invisible way, tlie soul ascended in its
heavenly flight until it reached its celestial habita¬
tion. As before observed, the spirit was supposed
to linger for a time about the body, and perhaps to
revisit it. In oonsequence of this belief, a supersti¬
tious custom prevailed of leaving a slight opening
in the grave, through which it might reenter its
former tenement. To this day, among a portion of
the Iroquois, after the body has been deposited in a
coffin, holes are bored through it for the same pur¬
pose. After taking its final departure, the soul was
supposed to ascend higher and higher on its heaven-
ly way, gradually moving to the westward, until it
came out upon the plains of heaven.
The inhabitants of this sinless dwelling-place of
Hd^en-m'-yu were believed to possess a body, and
the senses, appetites and affections of the earthly
life. They carried their knowledge with them,
and the memory of former friends. Sex was in
raising thee up. When thou wert
young, she loved thee as her life.
Thy presence has been a source of
great joy to her. Upon thoe she de¬
pended for support and comfort in
her declining days. She had ever ex¬
pected to gain the end of the path of
iife before thee. But thou hast out¬
stripped her, and gone before her.
Our great and wise Creator has or¬
dered it thus. By his will I am left
to taste more of the miseries of this
world. Thy friends and relatives
have gathered about thy body, to
look upon thee for the last time.
They mourn, as with one mind, Uiy
departure from among us. We, toO;
have but a few days more, and our
journey shall be ended. W e part now,
and you are conveyed from oiu sight.
But we shall soon meet again, and
shall again look upon each other.
Then we shall part no more. Our
Maker has called you to his home.
Thither will we follow. Na-ho.'”
After this was over, the wail continued
for a few moments, when the body
was borne away. The above was
furnished to the author by Sa-sa-no-
an'-da, (Ely S. Parker,) who heard it
delivered. See also a specimen of an
address to the dead in La Hontan’s
Voy. North Am. Lond. ed. 1735,
voL il p. 64.
Ch. I] ABODE OF THE GEEAT SPIRIT. lYY
ejffect abolished, but families were reunited, and
dwelt together in perpetual harmony. All the
powers of the Indian imagination were taxed to
picture the glowing beauties of their celestial home.
It was fashioned to please the natural senses. A
vast plain of illimitable extension, it was spread out
with every variety of natural scenery which could
please the eye, or gratify the fancy. Forests clothed
with ever-living foliage, flowers of every hue in
eternal bloom, fruits of every variety in perpetual
ripeness, in a word, the meridian charms of nature
met the eye in every direction. To form a paradise
of unrivalled beauty, the Great Spirit had gathered
every object in the natural world which could de¬
light the senses, and having spread them out in vast
but harmonious array, and restored their baptismal
vestments, he diffused over these congregated beau¬
ties of nature the bloom of immortality. In this
happy abode, they were destined to enjoy unending
felicity. No evil could enter this peaceful home of
innocence and purity. No violence could disturb,
no passions ruffle the tranquillity of this fortunate
realm. In amusement or repose they spent their
lives. The festivities in which they had delighted
while on the earth were re-celebrated in the presence
of the great Author of their being. They enjoyed
all the happiness of the earthly life, unencumbered
by its ills.
With the Iroquois, heaven was not regarded as a
“hunting ground,” as it appears to have been by
some Indian nations. Subsistence had ceased to be
8*
1Y8 SPIRIT OF THE LEAGUE. [Book IL
necessary. When the faithful partook of the spon¬
taneous fruits around them, it was for the gratifica¬
tion of the taste, and not for the support of life.
Among the modern beliefs engrafted upon the
ancient faith, there is one which is worthy of partic¬
ular notice. It relates to Washington.^ Accord¬
ing to their present belief, no white man ever reach¬
ed the Indian heaven. Not having been created by
the Great Spirit, no provision was made for him in
their scheme of theology. He was excluded both
from heaven, and from the place of punishment.
But an exception was made in favor of Washing¬
ton. Because of his justice and benevolence to the
Indian, he stood preeminent above all other white
men. When, by the peace of 17 8 3, the Indians
were abandoned by their English allies, and left to
make their own terms with the American govern¬
ment, the Iroquois were more exposed to severe
measures than the other tribes in their alliance. At
this critical moment, Washington interfered in their
behalf, as the protector of Indian rights, and the
advocate of a policy towards them of the most en¬
lightened justice and humanity. After his death,
he was mourned by the Iroquois as a benefactor of
their race, and his memory was cherished with rev¬
erence and affection. A belief was spread abroad
among them, that the Great Spirit had received him
into a celestial residence upon the plains of heaven,
the only white man whose noble deeds had entitled
i His name among the Iroquois was Ha no-da-ga' -ne-ars, which signifies
‘ Town Destroyer.”
Ch. L]
him to this heavenly favor. Just by the entrance
of heaven is a walled enclosure, the ample grounds
within which are laid out with avenues and shaded
walks. Within is a spacious mansion, constructed
in the fashion of a fort. Every object in nature
which could please a cultivated taste had been
gathered in this blooming Eden, to render it a de¬
lightful dwelling-place for the immortal Washing¬
ton. The faithful Indian, as he enters heaven,
passes this enclosure. He sees and recognizes the
illustrious inmate, as he walks to and fro in quiet
meditation. But no word ever passes his lips.
Dressed in his uniform, and in a state of perfect
felicity, he is destined to remain through eternity
in the solitary enjoyment of the celestial residence
prepared for him by the Great Spirit.
Surely the piety and the gratitude of the Iro¬
quois have, jointly, reared a monument to Wash¬
ington above the skies, which is more expressive in
its praise, than the proudest recitals on the obelisk,
and more imperishable in its duration, than the
syenite which holds up the record to the gaze of
centuries.
The beliefs of our primitive inhabitants, when
brought together in a connected form, naturally
call forth an expression of surprise. A faith so
purely spiritual, so free from the tincture of human
passion, and from the grossness of superstition, can
scarcely be credited, when examined under the or¬
dinary estimate of the Indian character. It has
been the misfortune of the Indian never to be
180 SPIRIT OF THE LE^-GUE. [Book IL
riglitly understood, especially in liis social relations.
Their religious and moral sentiments, such as they
were, exercised as decisive an influence upon Indian
society, as the precepts of Christianity do over en¬
lightened communities. They furnished springs of
action, rules of intercourse, and powers of restraint.
And yet, where is the picture of Indian social life,
which reveals the domestic virtues, the generous
friendships, the integrity between man and man, the
harmony of intercourse, and the sympathies of the
heart, which bloomed and flourished in the depths of
the forest. W e have met the red man upon the war¬
path, and not at the fireside. We have dealt with
hiiTi as his oppressor, and not as his friend. His
evil traits, ever present with the mind, form the
standard of judgment ; and when his virtues rise
up before us, they create surprise, rather than an¬
swer expectation, because the standard of estima¬
tion is univemally unjust.
The mind of the Iroquois was deeply imbued
with religious sentiments, the practical results, the
actual fruits of which, unseen for the most part, by
those who know the Indian only in his intercourse
with the whites, reveal themselves in unexpected
beauty, when we examine his social relations, and
view him in his domestic life. Their influence upon
the Iroquois, in their intercourse with other nations,
is necessarily secondary. To judge of their reli¬
gious system from its direct effects, it is necessary to
look into Indian society itself. Here its primary
influence, at least, must fall. It would be a grate-
Ch. L]
fill task to array tke virtues, wkick sprang into ex¬
istence in the seclusions of the wilderness, to light
up the character of the red man. From the har¬
mony which characterized their political relations
under the League, down to the domestic quiet of
the sylvan home, the picture is much the same.
Peace, hospitality, charity, friendship, harmony, in¬
tegrity, religious enthusiasm, the domestic affec¬
tions, found a generous growth and cultivation
among the L*oquois. Genius, learning and Chris¬
tianity change the features of society, and cast over
it an artificial garment, but its elements continue
the same. It need not awaken surprise that the
Indian has rivalled many of the highest virtues of
civilized and christianized man ; or that in some of
the rarest traits in the human character, he has
passed quite beyond him.
Whatever excellencies the Iroquois character pos¬
sessed are to be ascribed, in a great measure, to
their beliefs, and above all, to their unfailing faith
in the Great Spirit. By adhering to that sublime
but simple truth, that there was one Supreme Be¬
ing, who created and preserved them, they not
only escaped an idolatrous worship, but they im¬
bibed a more ennobling and spiritual faith, than
has fallen to the lot of any other unchristianized
people.
Book II, Chapter II
Worship op the Iroquois. — Keepers of the Faith. — Thanks to
THE Maple. — Planting Festival. — Beret Festival. — Green
Corn Festival. — Harve^st Festival. — New Year’s Jubilee. —
Sacrifice of the White Dog. — Address to the Great Spirit.
— Influence of their Worship.
Tbue Iroquois had a systematic worship. It con¬
sisted in the celebration of periodical festivals,
which were held at stated seasons of the year.
These observances were suggested by the changes
in the seasons, the ripening of the fruits, and the
gathering of the harvest. They were performed
annually, with the same established ceremonies,
which had been handed down from age to age.
The worship of the Iroquois, as before remarked,
has undergone no change in centuries. It is stiU the
same, in all essential particulars, that it was at the
period of their discovery. Some slight additions,
ascribable, doubtless, to missionary instructions,
will be detected, but they are too inconsiderable to
change the form, or disturb the harmony of the
whole. Upon an examination of the principal
features of the system, it will become apparent that
it was chiefly a thanksgiving worship, although the
supplication of the Great Spirit for the continuance
Ch. II.]
of liis protection entered into it as an essential ele¬
ment.
Six regular festivals, or thanksgivings, were ob¬
served by the Iroquois. The first, in the order of
time, was the Maple festival. This was a return of
thanks to the maple itself, for yielding its sweet
waters. ISText was the Planting festival, designed,
chiefly, as an invocation of the Great Spirit to bless
the seed. Third came the Strawberry festival, in¬
stituted as a thanksgiving for the first fruits of the
earth. The fourth was the Green Corn festival, de¬
signed as a thanksgiving acknowledgment for the
ripening of the corn, beans and squashes. Next
was celebrated the Harvest festival, instituted as a
general thanksgiving to “ Our Supporters,” after the
gathering of the harvest. Last in the enumeration
is placed the New Year’s festival, the great jubilee
of the Iroquois, at which the White Dog was sacri¬
ficed.
The principle involved in the formal worship of
the Great Spirit at stated periods, and the fidelity
with which the Iroquois, in prosperity and in ad¬
versity, adhered to these observances from generation
to generation, are of much more importance in form¬
ing a judgment of their religious sentiments than the
mere ceremonies themselves. In this constant rec¬
ognition of their dependence upon the divine power,
there is much to awaken a feeling of sympathy and
a sentiment of respect for a people, who, untaught
by revelation, had reached such high conclusions.
By assembling at periodical seasons to render their
[Book IL
tiianks to Hd-weiv-ne* -yu for Ms gifts, tliey fully rec¬
ognized tlie duty wMcli rested upon tlieni as the re¬
cipients of such favors. And, also, hy supplicating
the continuance of his watchful care, and hy invok¬
ing his blessing upon their present acts, they mani¬
fested the sincerity of their faith, and the fulness
of their trust in the great Author of them being.
But the ceremonies themselves are not without a
peculiar interest. They will convey to the mind a
more distinct impression of the natm^e and simplicity
of their worsMp. No attempt wiU be made to de¬
scribe th^e observances with the minuteness of a
picture. An outline of those appropriate to each
festival will sufficiently illustrate their general char¬
acter and purpose.
The question here presents itself as to the re¬
ligious office or priesthood among the Iroquois.
Under the League itself no sacerdotal office was
recognized. Sachems were raised up, and invested
with their titles by a council of all the sachems of
the League. CMefs were first raised up in the na¬
tion to wMch they belonged, and their title was
afterwai’ds confirmed by the same general council.
But no religious dignitaries were ever raised up by
the council of sachems to fill any priestly station.
In each nation, however, there was a select class ap¬
pointed by the several tribes to take the charge of
their religious festivals, and the general supervision
of their worsMp. They were styled Ho-nwirde'-
or “ Keepers of the Faith,” as the term literally
signifies. In the election of this class, their powers
Ch. II.J
and duties, and the tenure of their office, there are
many circumstances to distinguish them as a sacer¬
dotal order. To their number there was no limit,
and they were usually about as numerous as the
chiefe. The chiefs themselves were ex officio keep¬
er of the faith. The office was elective, and con¬
tinued as long as the individual was faithful to his
trust. Suitable persons were selected by the wise
men and matrons out of their respective tribes, and
advanced to the office. Their original names were
then taken away, and new ones assigned, out of a
collection of names which belonged to this class.
At the first subsequent council of the nation, their
appointment and names were publicly announced,
which in itself completed the investiture. The
number furnished by each tribe was an evidence of
its fidelity to the ancient faith. They were, to some
extent, censors of the people; and their admoni¬
tions were received with kindness, as coming from
those commissioned to remonstrate. In some cases
they reported the evil deeds of individuals to the
council, to make of them an example by exposure.
Sometimes they held consultations to deliberate
upon the moral condition of the people. It was
the duty of every individual to accept the office
when bestowed ; but he could relinquish it at any
moment by laying aside his new name and resuming
his old. It was their duty to designate the times for
holding the periodical festivals, to make the neces¬
sary arrangements for their celebration, and to con¬
duct the ceremonies. Certain ones of their number,
[Book IL
by previous appointment, made the opening speecli,
and the thanksgiving address at the council, and
also delivered religious discourses whenever they
were deemed advisable. All of the members of this
class were equal in authority and privileges. Those
animated by the highest zeal and enthusiasm would
naturally assume the most active charge ; but they
had no acknowledged head. The distribution of all
powers, duties and offices among a number of equals
was the prevailing feature of their civil polity. It
was necessary that women as well as men should be
appointed keepers of the faith, and about in equal
numbers. To the matrons more particularly was in¬
trusted the charge of the feast. The Iroquois never
held a mourning or religious council, without pre¬
paring an entertainment for all the people in attend¬
ance on the evening of each day. None but those
matrons who were keepers of the faith could take
any part in its preparation. But their duties were
not confined to the supervision of the feast. They
had an equal voice in the general management of
the festivals, and of all of their religious concern¬
ments. During a discourse or address, all the keep¬
ers of the faith acted, if necessary, as prompters to
the speaker, and through him communicated to the
people any injunction or precept which they deemed
adffisable. For this reason, one of their names as a
class was that of “ prompters.”
Notwithstanding the systematic organization of
the keepei's of the faith, and the precise limitation
of them duties, there do not seem to be sufficient
Ch. II.]
reasons for calling this class a religious order, or a
priesthood, as these terms are usually understood.
They were distinguished by no special privileges,
except while in the act of discharging their pre¬
scribed duties ; they wore no costume, or emblem
of office, to separate them from the people. In fact
they were common warriors, and common women,
and, in every sense, of and among the people. The
office was one of necessity, and was without reward,
like all Indian offices of every name, and also with¬
out particular honor to the individual.
This was the first festival of the spring. It was
usually called the Maple Dance. The primary idea
of this ceremonial was to return thanks to the ma¬
ple itself; but at the same time they rendered their
thanks to the Great Spirit for the gift of the maple.
It lasted but one day. When the sap began to
flow, the keepers of the faith announced the time
and place for commemorating the recurrence of this
event, and summoned the people to assemble for
that purpose. Some days before the time appointed
for the festival, the people assembled for the mutual
confession of their sins, both as an act of religious
duty, and as a preparation for the council. This
act preceded all the festivals ; but it was more gen¬
eral and thorough at the three last, than at the
three first, as they were deemed more important,
and continued for a greater length of time. This
18S
spmrr of the leagur
[Book H.
council, Sarnun-dM^arwd'4d^ literally “ a meeting for
repentance,” was opened by one of tbe keepers of
the feith, with an addr^ upon the propriety and
importance of acknowledging their evil deeds, to
strengthen their minds against fotnre temptations.
He then took the string of* white wampum in his
hand, and set the example by a confession of his
own faults; after which he handed the string to
the one nearest to him, who received it, made his
confession in like manner, and passed it to another.
In this way the wampum went around ftom hand
to hand ; and thc^ who had confessions to make
stated wherein they had done wrong, and promised
to do better in the future. Old and young, men,
women, and even children all united in this public
acknowledgment of their faults, and Joined in the
common resolution of amendment. On some occa-
rions the string of wampum was placed in the cen¬
tre of the room, and each one advanced in turn to
perform the duty, as the inclination seized him. A
confession and promise without holding the wam¬
pum would be of no avail It was the wampum
which recorded their words, and gave their pledge
of sincerity- The object of the confe^on was fu¬
ture amendment. The Iroquois appear to have had
no idea either of the atonement or of the forgive-
n^ of rins. Meritorious acts neutralized evil deeds,
but neither the one nor the other, when done, could
be recalled, or changed, or obliterated.
The celebration of this festival was not limited
to one particular place, but it was observed in ad
Ch. II.]
tte villages of tlie several nations of the League,
which were too remote to unite around the same
council-fire. At the time appointed, the people
gathered from the subjacent districts, some to offer
religious admonitions, some prepared for the dance,
others for the games, and still others for the enjoy¬
ment of the feast. It was one of their festive days,
awakening the eagerness of expectation in the minds
of all. On the morning of the day, the matrons, to
whom the duty appertained, commenced the prepa¬
ration of the customary feast for the people, which
was as sumptuous as the season, and the means of
the hunter life would afford. Towards meridian,
the out-door sports and games, which were common
to such occasions, were suspended, and the people
assembled in council. An opening speech was then
delivered, by one of the keepers of the faith. The
following, made at the opening of one of these
councils among the Senecas, is in the usual form,
and vdll illustrate their general character : —
“Friends and Relatives; — The sun, the ruler of the day, is high
in his path, and we must hasten to do our duty. We are assembled
to observe an ancient custom. It is an institution handed down to
us by our forefathers. It was given to them by the Great Spirit.
He has ever required of his people to return thanks to him for all
blessings received. We have always endeavored to live faithful to
this wise command.
“Friends and Relatives, continue to listen ; — It is to perform this
duty that we are this day gathered. The season when the maple
tree yields its sweet waters has again returned. We are all thankful
that it is so. We therefore expect all of you to join in our general
thanksgiving to the maple. We also expect you to join in a thanks-
[Book IL
giving to the Great Spirit, who has wisely made this tree for the
good of man. We hope and expect that order and harmony will
prevail.
“Friends and Relatives: — ^We are gratified to see so many here,
and we thank you all that you have thought well of this matter.
We thank the Great Spirit, that he has been kind to so many of us,
in sparing our lives to participate again in the festivities of this
season. Na-ho''' *
Other speeches often followed, which were in the
nature of exhortations to duty. These occasions
were seized upon by their moral teachers, to incul¬
cate anew the precepts of their faith, and to offer
admonitions for theii’ spiritual guidance. One of
the keepers of the faith, addressing the people at
such a time, would inculcate the virtues which be¬
came a warrior, and unfold the duties which were
incumbent upon them as members of one common
brotherhood. The duty of living in harmony and
peace, of avoiding evil speaking, of kindness to the
orphan, of charity to the needy, and of hospitality
to all, would be among the prominent topics brought
under consideration. He would remind them that
the Great Spirit noticed and rewarded good acts,
and that those who hoped for success in the affairs
of life, should be ready to do them whenever occa¬
sion offered ; that those who had done wrong should
not be treated harshly ; that enmities were not to
be contracted, lest a spirit of revenge should be
awakened, which would never sleep; and finally,
* It is almost the universal custom exclamation. It signifies simply, “ I
among the Iroquois to conclude their have done.”
speeches, on all occasions, with this
Ch.IL]
that those who pursued the right path would never
fall into trouble.
When these speeches aud exhortations were con¬
cluded, the dance, which was a prominent feature
of their religious festivals, was announced. It is
proper here to observe, that dancing was regarded
by the Iroquois as an appropriate mode of wor
ship. They regarded the dance as a perpetual out¬
ward ceremonial of thanksgiving to the Great Spirit.
A belief prevailed among them that the custom
was of divine origin. “ The Great Spirit knew the
Indian could not live without some amusement,
therefore he originated the idea of dancing, which
he gave to them.” ^ The dance set apart in a pecu¬
liar manner for the worship of the Great Spirit, at
their festivals, was one of their own invention ;
and the most spirited, graceful and beautiful in
their list. It is known as the Great Feather Dance,
(O-sto-weli -g(ywa?) It was performed by a select
band, in full costume, and was reserved exclusively
for religious councils, and for great occasions. It
lasted about an hour, never failing to arouse a deep
spirit of enthusiastic excitement. Before the band
came in, one of the keepers of the faith made a
brief speech, explanatory of its origin, nature and
objects; in which the popular belief w^ inter¬
woven, that this dance would be enjoyed by the
faithful in the future life, in the realm of the Great
Spirit, to whose worship it was especially con¬
secrated.
^ Sose-ha'-wd, (Johnson.)
[Book IL
After tlie conclusion of tlib dance others fonow'
ed, in wMcli all participated. Before they were
ended, the usual* thanksgiving address to the Great
Sphit, with the bui*ning of tobacco, was made. In
ancient times the IVIaple festival was terminated
with these dances. One of the keepers of the
faith made a closing speech, after which the peo¬
ple. partook of the feast, and separated for then* re¬
spective homes.
There is a popular belief among the Iroquois
that the early part of the day is dedicated to the
Great Spirit, and the after part to the spirits of the
dead ; consequently their religious services should
properly be concluded at meridian. They stdl re¬
tain the theory, and to this day religious discoumes
are seldom continued after noon; but in practice
it was found impossible, from the tardiness of the
people in assembling, to conclude the ceremonies of
the festival before twilight. A farther innovation
was made many years ago by devoting the evenings
of these festive days to dancing, for the entertain¬
ment of guests from other villages or nations, who
chiinced to be with them. This became, in time,
the imiversal custom, and they now continue the prac¬
tice for their own amusement. These evening enter¬
tainments, however, in strictness, form no part of the
festival, although apparently it is one proceeding
fi*om the opening of the council untd late at night,
when the entertainment is ended. A distinction
should constantly be held in view, between theii*
proper religious exercises, and them amusements.
Cfl. IL]
and also between tbe ancient mode of celebrating
these festivals, and tbe modern. The regular reli¬
gious ceremonies at the Maple festival consisted of
the opening discourse by one of the keepers of the
faith, the exhortations of others, the Feather dance,
the thanksgiving address to the Great Spmt, with
the incense of tobacco, two or three other dances,
the closing speech, and the feast in common.
In ancient times these ceremonies were concluded
at meridian, but in modern times at twilight. For¬
merly all the exercises at these festivals were of
a strictly religious character, except certain games
which were common to these occasions. But in
later times other dances have been added, and also
an evening entertainment devoted exclusively to
dancing. There were likewise certain games of
chance, sports, and athletic games, common to all
these festivals, which yet formed no part of their
religious ceremonies. They were merely outside di¬
versions for the people. Still the Maple festival,
as celebrated at the present day among the de¬
scendants of the ancient Iroquois, is the same in its
essential features, as at the period of its institu¬
tion.^
This word signifies “ the planting season.” When
this time arrived another festival was held to cel-
* The Iroquois have long been in may be a difficult question ; although
the habit of manufacturing sugar from the former would seem the more
the maple. Whether they learned probable, from the want of suitable
the art from us, or we from them, vessels among them for boiling.
[Book 1L
ebrate the event. It continued but one day. In
its observances there was nothing to distinguish it
very materially from the Maple festival. A descrip¬
tion is therefore unnecessary, except to point out
some peculiarities. The object of this festival was
two-fold : to render thanks to the Great Spmt for
the return of the planting season, and to invoke his
blessing upon the seed which they had committed
to the earth, that it might yield an abundant
harvest.
The Indian had no Sabbath, no sacred uu-itings
to furnish him an inexhaustible fountain of instruc¬
tion ; but his gratitude was awakened by every re¬
turning manifestation of divine goodness. When
nature had reclothed herself in the vestments of
spring, and the teeming earth invited him to com¬
mit the seeds to her bosom, he recognized in the
event the watchful kindness of the Great Spirit.
There is something eminently spiritual and beauti¬
ful in this Indian conception of the natural periods
of worship. Seizing upon the moment when the
most conspicuous evidences of the protecting care
of the Deity were before him, he acknowledged
both his existence, and his beneficence, and man¬
ifested, at the same time, his gratitude, and devo¬
tion, by those simple rites which the piety of his
heart suggested.
At the time appointed by the keepei-s of the
faith, the people assembled to observe the day.
After the speeches were over, the Feather and other
dances were performed, as at the Maple festival
Ch. II.]
In ancient times, the thanksgiving address, or prayer
to the Great Spirit, with the burning of tobacco,
was confined to the last three, or the principal fes¬
tivals ; but in later days such a prayer was offered
generally at the first three also. As elsewhere ob¬
served, when the Iroquois returned thanks to the
various objects in nature which ministered to their
wants, or when they acknowledged to each other
their thankfulness to the Great Spirit, or to the
lesser Spirits, they never burned tobacco. In these
cases, their thanks were returned to the trees and
plants and elements direct, to do which, according
to their theology, did not require the use of in¬
cense, while, as to the spiritual world, they merely
avowed to each other that they returned their
thanks. But when they offered a prayer, or called
upon the Great Spirit, or his Invisible Aids, they
were obliged to use the ascending smoke to put
themselves in communication with the spiritual
world.
This address occurred at no particular stage in
the ceremonies of the day. The keepers of the
faith having appointed one of their number to per¬
form this duty, the person designated selected a
suitable moment for its dehvery. Advancing to the
fire prepared for the purpose, he called the attention
of the people by an exclamation, which was the
known precursor of this addi’ess. Having sprinkled
a few leaves of Indian tobacco upon the fire, he ad¬
dressed Ha^^nrue -yu^ as the smoke ascended. The
following, dehvered at a Planting festival among the
[Book II.
Senecas, will illustrate tlie general cliaracter of tliese
prayers or thanksgiving addresses : —
“ Great Spirit, who dwellest alone, listen now to the words of thy
people here assembled. The smoke of our offering arises. Give
kind attention to our words, as they arise to thee in the smoke. We
thank thee for this return of the planting season. Give to us a good
season, that our crops may be plentiful.
“ Continue to listen, for the smoke yet arises. (Throwing on to¬
bacco.) Preserve us from all pestilential diseases. Give strength
to us all that we may not fall. Preserve our old men among us,
and protect the young. Help us to celebrate with feeling the cere¬
monies of this season. Guide the minds of thy people, that they
may remember thee in all their actions. Na-ho'P
There was nothing further to distinguish this fes¬
tival from the former.
If, after the planting season, a drought should
come upon the land, threatening a failure of the
harvest, a special council was frequently called, to
invoke He'-no^ the Thunderer, to send rain upon the
earth. Before the time appointed for this council,
the people assembled, as before other festivals, for
mutual confession. They feared, as they expressed
it, “ that some of their number had done some great
wrong, for which the Great Spirit was angry with
them, and withheld the rain as a merited punish¬
ment.” After this special council was opened in the
usual form, the Thanksgiving dance, and the Ah-
do'^eh^ hereafter to be described, were introduced,
which were supposed to be peculiarly acceptable to
He' -no. At a proper time, in the progress of these
ceremonies, the keeper of the faith, who had been
Ch. n.]
appointed as usual, advanced to the fire, and having
laid on the leaves of tobacco, and gained the atten¬
tion of the people, he made the following invocation
of the Thunderer, as the incense ascended : —
“ He' -no, our Grandfather, listen now to the words of thy grand¬
children. We feel grieved. Our minds are sorely troubled. We
fear Our Supporters will fail, and bring famine upo^ us. We ask
our Grandfather that he may come, and give us rain, that the earth
may not dry up, and refuse to produce for our support. Thy grand¬
children all send their salutations to their Grandfather, He'-no'^
Then taking another handful of tobacco, and
placing it upon the fire, he changed the address to
IIarwertr7ie/
“ Great Spirit : listen to the words of thy suffering children. They
come to thee with pure minds. If they have done wrong, they have
confessed, and turned their minds, (at the same time holding tp the
string of white wampum wnth which the confession was recorded.)
Be kind to us. Hear our grievances, and supply our wants. Direct
that He' -no may come, and give us rain, that Our Supporters may
not fail us, and bring famine to our homes. Na-koT
After concluding the dance the assembly was dis¬
missed.
In the progress of the seasons, next came the
Strawberry, the first fruit of the earth. The Iro¬
quois seized upon this spontaneous gift of nature
for their sustenance, as another suitable occasion
for a thanksgiving festival. By such ceremonials
they habituated their minds to a recognition of the
19S
[Book IL
proridential cai'e of Hd-ioenrne'-yu ; cultivating, at
tlie same tune, a grateful spirit for tlie constant re¬
turn of liis gifts. The observances at this festival
were the same as thc^e at the Maple, with a sufficient
variation of terms to designate the particular occa¬
sion. It was concluded with a feast of strawberries.
The berrie^were prepared with maple sugar, in capa¬
cious bark trays, in the form of a jelly ; and in this
condition the people feasted upon this great luxury
of nature.
The ripening of the Whortleberry was often
made the occasion of another festivaL It was in
all respects like the last, the only difference con¬
sisting in the fact, that the former was an acknowl¬
edgment for the ffi'st fruit of plants, and the latter
for the fruit of trees.
•
The word from which this takes its name signifies
a fenst.” It continued four days, the proceeding
of each bemg different in most particulars, but each
one terminating with a feast.
When the green com became fit for use, the
season of plenty with the Indian had emphatically
arrived. They made it another occasion of general
thanksgiving to the Great Spirit, and of feasting
and rejoicing among themselves. Com has ever
been the staple article of coi^umption among the
Iroquois. They cultivated this plant, and also the
bean and the squash, before the formation of the
Oh. II.]
League. From tlie most remote period to wMch
tradition readies, the knowledge of the cultivation
and use of these plants has been handed down
among them.^ They raised sufficient quantities of
each to supply their utmost wants, preparing them
for food in a great variety of ways, and making
them at least the basis of their sustenance. In their
own mode of expressing the idea, these plants are
mentioned together, under the- figurative name of
“ Our Life,” or “ Our Supporters.” It cannot, there¬
fore, be affirmed with correctness, that the Indian
subsisted principally by the chase. After the for¬
mation of the Leagu.e, they resided in permanent
villages, and within certain well-defined territorial
limits. The fruits of the chase then became a sec¬
ondary, although a necessary means of subsistence.^
On the first day of this festival, after the intro¬
ductory speeches had been made, the Feather dance,
the thanksgiving address, with the burning of to¬
bacco, and three or four other dances, made up the
* According to the legend, the
corn plant sprang from the bosom of
the mother of the Great Spirit, after
her burial
^ The quantities of corn raised by
the Iroquois was a constant cause of
remark among those who went earli¬
est among them. The first expedi¬
tion into the Seneca county, of a
warlike character, was made by the
Marquis De Nonville, as early as 1687,
but a few years after the geographi¬
cal location of the Iroquois nations
became known to the French and
English. He thus speaks of the
quantity of corn. “We remained at
the four Seneca villages until the 24th
of July. All that time we spent in
destroying the corn, which was in
such great abundance, that the loss,
including old corn which was in cache
which we burnt, and that which was
standing, was computed according to
the estimate afterwards made, at
four hundred thousand minots of
Indian corn.” (1,200,000 bushels.)
Documentary Hist. New York, v. I
p. 238. This, however, must be
regarded as an extravagant estimate.
[Book II
principal religious exercises. This address was in¬
troduced in the midst of one of the dances which
succeeded the first. One more specimen of these
brief prayers of the Iroquois, as made by the Sen¬
ecas, will be furnished. Having placed the leaves
of tobacco on the fire, as usual, the keeper of the
faith thus addressed Ha^en-ne'-yu : —
“ Great Spirit in heaven, listen to our words. We have as¬
sembled to perform a sacred duty, as thou hast commanded. This
institution has descended to us from our fathers. We salute thee
with our thanks, that thou hast preserved so many of us another
year, to participate in the ceremonies of this occasion.
“Great Spirit, continue to listen: We thank thee for thy great
goodness in causing our mother, the earth, again to bring forth
her fruits. We thank thee that thou hast caused Our Supporters to
yield abundantly.
“ Great Spirit, our words still continue to flow towards thee.
(Throwing on tobacco.) Preserve us from all danger. Preserve
our aged men. Preserve our mothers. Preserve our warriors. Pre¬
serve our children. We burn this tobacco ; may its smoke arise to
thee. May our thanks, ascending with it, be pleasing to thee. Give
wisdom to the keepers of the faith, that they may direct these cer¬
emonies with propriety. Strengthen our warriors, that they may
celebrate with pleasure the sacred dances of thy appointment.
“Great Spirit; the council here assembled, the aged men and
women, the strong warriors, the women and children, unite their
voice of thanksgiving to thee. Na-hoT ^
Before partaking of tbe feast, the people went
out to witness some of those games which were
often introduced, as an amusement, to accompany
the other exercises of these festive days.
* For a similar address in use North Am., Lond, Ed. 1735, vol. 2,
among the Ottawas, see La Hontan’s p. 34.
Oh. II.]
The second day commenced with the usual address,
after which they had the Thanksgiving dance, Go-
na'-o-uh^ which was the principal religious exercise
of the day. This dance was not necessarily a cos¬
tume performance, although it was usually given by
a select band in full dress. In figure, step and
music, it was precisely like the Feather dance, the
chief difference between them being the introduc¬
tion of short thanksgiving speeches between the
songs of the dance. This dance is fully explain¬
ed elsewhere ; but it is proper to say, to make
it intelligible here, that the music consisted of a
series of thanksgiving songs, performed by select
singers, who accompanied themselves with turtle-
shell rattles, to mark time. Each song lasted about
two minutes, during which the band danced around
the room, in column, with great animation. When
the song ceased, the dancers walked around the
council-house, about the same length of time, to the
beat of the rattles. The thanksgiving speeches
were made during these intervals between the songs.
A person arose, and perhaps thanked the Maple as
follows : “We return thanks to the Maple, which
yields its sweet waters for the good of man.”
Again the dance was resumed, and another song
danced out, after which another speech was made
by some other person, perhaps as follows: “We
return thanks to the bushes and trees, which provide
us with fruit.” The dance was then resumed as be¬
fore. In this manner the thanksgiving speeches, the
songs and the dance were continued, until all the
[Book II.
prominent objects in nature bad been made tbe sub¬
jects of special notice. There were always set
speeches introduced with the Thanksgiving dance,
at the Grreen Corn and Harvest festivals, and they
formed a conspicuous part of the worship of the
Iroquois. These speeches, or the principal ones,
may be collected into one, for the purpose of show¬
ing the range of subjects taken ; yet it must be
borne in mind that each object formed the subject
of a separate speech, and was followed by a thanks¬
giving song, adapted to the case, which the band
danced through. It may be proper further to add,
that these speeches were consolidated to form the
principal part of the annual thanksgiving address
to the Great Spirit, made at the burning of the
White Hog. The following is their natural order.
“ We return thanks to our mother, the earth,
which sustains us. We return thanks to the rivers
and streams, which supply us with water. We
return thanks to all herbs, which furnish med¬
icines for the cure of our diseases. We return
thanks to the corn, and to her sisters, the beans
and squashes, which give us life. We return
thanks to the bushes and trees, which provide us
with fruit. We return thanks to the wind, which,
moving the air, has banished diseases. We return
thanks to the moon and stars, which have given to
us their light when the sun was gone. We return
thanks to our grandfather He-no^ that he has pro¬
tected his grandchildren from witches and reptiles,
and has given to us his rain. We return thanks to
Ch. IL]
tlie sun, that he has looked upon the earth with a
beneficent eye. Lastly, we return thanks to the
Great Spirit, in whom is embodied all goodness, and
who directs all things for the good of his children.”
After the conclusion of the Thanksgiving dance,
two or three other dances followed, and after them
the feast, with which the exercises of the day were
concluded.
The third morning was set apart for a thanksgiv¬
ing concert, called the ATi-do'-weh^ which constituted
the chief ceremony of the day. The council was
opened by an introductory speech by one of the
keepers of the faith, upon its nature, objects and
institution. This novelty in their worship was a
succession of short speeches made by different per¬
sons, one after another, returning thanks to a great
variety of objects, each one following his speech
with an appropriate song, the words of which
were of his own composing, and oftentimes the
music also. In a chorus to each song all the people
joined, thus sending forth a united anthem of praise.
They passed through the whole range of natural
objects, thanking each one directly, as in the Thanks¬
giving dance ; but they were not in the Ah-do’-weh
confined either to the natural or to the spiritual
world. Acts of kindness, personal achievements,
political events, in a word, all the affairs of pub¬
lic and private life were open on this occasion to the
indulgence of the grateful affections. Oftentimes
one or two hours were consumed, before the people
had all expressed their thanks to each other for per-
[Book II,
sonal favors, to tlie works of nature for tkeir con¬
stant ministration to their wants, and to the Great
Spirit and the “ Invisible Aids” for their protecting
care. Many of the speeches on these occasions, es¬
pecially those which referred to objects in the natu¬
ral world, were the same from year to year. But
those which grew out of their private relations
would vary with circumstances. This was esteemed
one of their highest religious exercises, and it al¬
ways continued to be one of their favorite observ¬
ances. When the Ah-do'-weh was concluded, two or
three dances were generally introduced before the
enjoyment of the feast, with which, as before re¬
marked, each day’s proceedings were terminated.
On the fourth day, the festival was concluded
with the peach-stone game, Gus-ga'-a^ a game of
chance, on which they bet profusely, and to which
they were extravagantly attached. It was not in
the nature of a religious exercise, but a favorite en¬
tertainment, with which to terminate the Green
Corn ceremonial. It is elsewhere described.
It should be held in the memory, that at the peri¬
od of the institution of their religious festivals, they
were concluded at meridian; during the middle
period of their history, they were continued until
towards twilight ; but in modern times, an evening
entertainment, in the way of dancing, always fol¬
lows each day of the festival, so long as it continues,
although it forms no part of their religious observ¬
ances. It may be further observed, that at the
present time, this, festival lasts but three days, the
Ch. IL]
proceedings of tlie tLii’d and fourtii being completed
on tbe former day.
At tbe close of eacb day, tbe people regaled them¬
selves upon a sumptuous feast of succotash. This
was always tbe entertainment at tbe green corn sea¬
son. It was made of corn, beans and squashes, and
was always a favorite article of food with tbe red
man. It may be well to state in this connection,
that among tbe Iroquois at tbe present day, they do
not sit down together to a common repast, except
at rebgious councils of unusual interest. Tbe feast,
after being prepared at the place of council, is dis¬
tributed at its close, and carried by tbe women, in
vessels brought for tbe purpose, to their respective
homes, where it is enjoyed by eacb family at tbeb’
own fireside. But when tbe people feasted together
after tbe ancient fashion, as they still do occasion¬
ally, they selected tbe hour of twilight. Tbe huge
kettles of soup, or bommony, or succotash, as tbe
case might be, were brought into their midst, smok¬
ing from tbe fire. Before partaking of this evening
banquet, they never omitted to say grace, which,
with them, was a simple ceremonial, but in perfect
harmony with their mode of worship. It was a
prolonged exclamation, upon a high key, by the sol¬
itary voice of one of the keepers of the faith, fol¬
lowed by a swelling chorus from the multitude, upon
a lower note. It was designed as an acknowledg¬
ment to each other of their gratitude to the great
Giver of the feast.
[Book IL
DA-YO-2JTJH'-im)-QIJA NA DE-aHA’-KO; OR, HARVEST
After tlie gatlieriiig of tlie harvest, the Iroquois
held another general thanksgiving for four days.
It was the last in the year, as the New Year’s ob¬
servances were not of the same general character.
The name given to this festival signifies “ Thanks¬
giving to Our Supporters.” It was instituted pri¬
marily to return thanks to the corn, beans and
squashes, which are always characterized by the Iro¬
quois under this figurative name. Also, to the
triad of Spirits, who are so intimately connected
in their minds with the plants themselves, that they
ai*e nearly inseparable. The resulting object, how¬
ever, of aH these Indian rites, was the praise of Hor
wenrue'^u. Nature having matured and poured
forth her stores for their sustenance, they instituted
this ceremonial as a perpetual acknowledgment of
their gratitude for each returning harvest.
In the mode of summoning this council, and in
the religious ceremonies, and concluding festivities
of each day, it so closely resembled the Green Com
wo:rehip, that a separate description is rendered un¬
necessary.
These religious councils were seasons of animation
and excitement. The greater activity in social in¬
tercourse among the people, generally awakened by
these ceremonies and festivities, contributed largely
to keep up the spirit of these occasions. In the
evening, as soon as the twilight hour was passed,
Ch. II.]
tile people gatliered for the dance, as this entertain¬
ment, since the innovation before referred to, al¬
ways follows the religious ceremonies of each day.
The Iroquois have numerous dances, and to the
practice itself they have always been extravagantly
addicted. On such occasions the passion was grati¬
fied by a free indulgence, and the hours of the night
passed by unheeded. With the Iroquois in their
festivities, as with more refined communities, neither
the admonition of the setting stars, nor of the fallen
dew, “counselled sleep.” Not, perhaps, until the
faint light of approaching day illumined the east,
did the spiiit of enjoyment decline, and the last
murmur of the dispersing council finally subside.
Gr-YE-WA-XO-US-QHA-GO-WA -, OR, XEtV YEAR’S JIJBILER
The name given to this festival literally signifies,
“The most excellent faith,” or “The supreme be¬
lief.” '
Among the ceremonies incident to the worship
of the Iroquois, the most novel were those which
ushered in the new year. In mid-winter, usually
about the first of February, this religious celebration
was held. It continued for seven successive days,
revealing, in its various ceremonials, nearly every fea-
tm’e of their religious system. The prominent act
which characterized this jubilee, and which, perhaps,
indicated what they understood by “ The most ex-
^ This "word will analyze as fol- no-us'-qua, (superlative,) excellent or
lows : Gr-ye-wa, faith or belief ; best ; and go'-wa, great or supreme.
[Book IL
cellent faitli,’’ was tlie burning of tlie White Dog,
on the fifth day of the festival. This annual sacri¬
fice of the Iroquois has long been known, attracting
at various times considerable attention. But the
true principle involved in it, appears not to have
been rightly understood. In the sequel, it wiU be
found to be a very simple and tangible idea, har¬
monizing fully with their system of faith and worship.
Several days before the time appointed for the
jubilee, the people assembled for the confession of
their sins. On this occasion they were more thorough
in the work than at any other season, that they
might enter upon the new year with a firm purpose
of amendment. This council not unfrequently last¬
ed three days, before all the people had performed
this act of religious duty.
The observances of the new year were commenced
on the day appointed, by two of the keepers of the
faith, who visited every house in and about the In¬
dian village, morning and evening. They were dis¬
guised in bear skins or bnffalo robes, which were
secured around their heads with wreaths of corn-
husi^, and then gathered in loose folds about the
body. Wreaths of corn-husks were also adjusted
around their arms and ankles. They were robed
in this manner, and pamted by the matrons, who,
like themselves, were keepers of the faith, and by
them were they commissioned to go forth in this
formidable attire, to announce the commencement
of the jubilee. Taking com-pounders in their hands,
they went out in company, on the morning of the
Ch. IL]
NEW TEAR’S JUBILEE.
day, to perform their duty. Upon entering a house,
they saluted the inmates in a formal manner, after
which, one of them, striking upon the floor, to re¬
store silence and secure attention, thus addressed
them : —
“ Listen, Listen, Listen : — The ceremonies which the Great Spirit
has commanded us to perform, are about to commence. Prepare
your houses. Clear away the rubbish. Drive out all evil animals.
We wish nothing to hinder or obstruct the coming observances.
We enjoin upon every one to obey our requirements. Should any
of your friends be taken sick and die, we command you not to mourn
for them, nor allow any of your friends to mourn. But lay the
body aside, and enjoy the coming ceremonies with us. When they
are over, we will mourn with you.” ‘
After singing a short thanksgiving song, they
passed out.
In the afternoon this visit was repeated in the
same manner. After saluting the family as before,
one of the keepers of the faith thus addressed
them : —
“My ISTephews, my Nephews, my Nephews : — We now announce
to you that the New Year’s ceremonies have commenced, according
to our ancient custom. You are,
^ This singular injunction exhibits
the deep interest taken in the per¬
formance of these religious ceremo¬
nies. In practice, also, they possess¬
ed sufficient self-control to carry out
the requirement to the letter. If a
person died during this festival, the
body was laid aside until it was con¬
cluded, and the relatives of the de¬
ceased participated both in the re-
each of you, now required to go
ligious ceremonies, and in the amuse¬
ments connected with them, with as
much interest and attention as if
nothing had happened. Sometimes
those festivals were broken up by a
bad omen : as if, for instance, a dog
should bite one of the keepers of the
faith on his visitorial round, they
would stop the festival, and appoint
a new one.
[Book II
forth, and participate in their observance. This is the will of the
Great Spirit. Yonr first duty will be to prepare your wooden
blades {Gd-ger-we-sa! ) with which to stir up the ashes upon your
neighbors’ hearths. Then return to the Great Spirit your individ¬
ual thanks for the return of this season, and for the enjoyment of
this privilege.”
Having sung anotlier song, appropriate to the
occasion, they departed finally, and when they had
in this way made the circuit of the village, the cere¬
monies of the first day were concluded.
On the first day, however, the White Dog was
strangled. They selected a dog, free from physical
blemish, and of a pure white, if such an one could
be found. The white deer, white squirrel, and other
chance animals of the albino kind, were regarded
as consecrated to the Great Spirit. White was the
Iroquois emblem of purity and of faith. In stran¬
gling the dog, they were careful neither to shed his
blood, nor break his bones. The dog was then
spotted, in places, over his body and limbs, with
red paint, and ornamented with feathers in various
ways. Around his neck was hung a string of white
wampum, the pledge of their sincerity. In modern
tim'es, the dog is ornamented with a profusion of
many-colored ribbons, which are adjusted around
his body and limbs.^ The ornaments placed upon
the dog were the voluntary offerings of the pious ;
and for each gift thus bestowed, the giver was taught
® The author once (February 6, tion among the Senecas at Tonawanda.
1846) counted nine different color- They were tied around his mouth,
ed ribbons upon a white dog thus neck, legs, body and tail,
hung up during a New Year’s celebra-
Ch. IL]
NEW YEAR’S JUBILEE.
to expect a blessing. When the dog had been thus
decorated, it was suspended by the neck about eight
feet from the ground, on the branching prong of a
pole erected for that purpose. Here it hung, night
and day, until the morning of the fifth day, when
it was taken down to be burned. Oftentimes two
dogs were burned, one for each of the four tribes.
In this case, the people separated into two divisions,
and after going through separate preparatory cere¬
monies, they united around the same altar for the
burning of the dogs, and the offering of the thanks¬
giving address to the Great Spirit.
On the second day all the people went forth, and
visited in turn the houses of their neighbors, either
in the morning, at noon, or in the evening. They
went in small parties apparelled in their best attire.
It was customary, however, for the people to be
preceded by the two keepers of the faith who
made the recitations the day previous, as a matter
of etiquette ; the houses not being open to all, until
these personages had made their call. At this time
was performed the ceremony of stirring the ashes
upon the hearth, which appears to have no partic¬
ular idea attached to it, beyond that of a formal
visitation. Putting aside the disguise of the day
before, the keepers of the faith assumed the costume
of warriors, plumed and painted, in which attire
they visited every family three times, in the morn¬
ing, at noon, and in the evening. Taking in their
hands wooden blades or shovels, they entered the
lodge and saluted the family. One of them then
[Book II.
stirred the ashes, and having taken up a quantity
upon the blade of the shovel, and sprinkled them
upon the hearth, he thus addressed the inmates, as
they were in the act of falling : “ I thank the
Great Spirit that he has spared your lives again to
witness this New Year’s celebration.” Then repeat¬
ing the process with another shovel full of ashes,
he continued : “ I thank the Great Spirit that he
has spared my life, again to be an actor in this cer¬
emony. And now I do this to j)le9^se the Great
Spirit.” The two then united in a thanksgiving
song prepared for the occasion, upon the conclusion
of which, they took their departure. Other parties
of the people then came in successively, and each
went through the same performances. In this man¬
ner every house was thrice visited on the second
day, by the keepers of the faith in the first instance,
and afterwards by the whole community.
The proceedings upon the third and fourth days
were alike. Small dancing parties were organized,
which visited from house to house, and danced at the
domestic fireside. Each set selected a different dance,
appointed their own leader, and fuimished their own
music. One party, for instance, took the Feather
dance, another the Fish dance, another the Trotting
dance, to give variety to the short entertainments
which succeeded each other at every house. It was
not uncommon, on such occasions, to see a party
of juveniles, about a dozen in number, dressed in
full costume, feathered and painted, dancing the
War dance, from house to house, with all the zeal
ch. n.]
NEW TEAR’S JUBILEE.
and enthusiasm, wliicli this dance was so eminently
calculated to excite. In this manner every house
was made a scene of gaiety and amusement, for
none was so humble or so retired as to remain un¬
visited.
Another pastime incident to these days, was the
formation of a “ thieving party,” as it was called, a
band of mischievous boys, disguised with false faces,
paint and rags, to collect materials for a feast.
This vagrant company strolled from house to house,
accompanied by an old woman carrying a huge
basket. If the family received them kindly, and
made them presents, they handed the latter to the
female carrier, and having given the family a dance
in acknowledgment of the present, they retired
without committing any depredations. But if no
presents were made, or such as were insufficient,
they purloined whatever articles they could most
adroitly and easily conceal. If detected, they at
once made restitution, but if not, it was considered
a fail’ win. On the return of this party from their
rounds, all the articles collected were deposited in
a place open to public examination ; where any one
who had lost an article which he particularly prized,
was allowed to redeem it, on paying an equivalent.
But no one was permitted to reclaim, as the owner,
any article successfully taken by this thieving
party on its professional round. Upon the pro¬
ceeds of this forced collection, a feast was event¬
ually given, together with a dance in some private
family.
[Book 1L
Gne^ing dreams was anotlier of tlie noTel prac¬
tices of the Iroquois, which distinguished these fes¬
tive days. It is difficult to undemtand precisely,
how far the self-delusion under which the dreamer
appeared to act was reaL A pemon with a melan¬
choly and dejected countenance, entering a house,
announced that he had a dream, and requested the
inmates to guess it. He thus wandered from house
to house, until he found a solution which suited
him. This was either received as an interpretation
of an actual dream, or suggested such a dream as
the person was willing to adopt as his own. He
at once avowed that his dream had been correct
ly guessed ; and if the di*eam, as inteiqyreted, pre¬
scribed any future conduct, he fulfilled it to the
letter at whatever sacrifice. The celebrated Corn-
planter, Gy~ant'^d--hi^ resigned Ms cMefship in
consequence of a dream.^ In relation to (beams,
the Iroquois had ever been prone to extravagant and
supernatmM beliefs. They often regarded a (beam as
* The dream of ComplaDter occur¬
red about the year 1810. His influence
■with the Senecas had been for some
years on the wane, which his friends
ascribed to hb friendly relatimis with
the whites. During a Ifew Year’s
celelaurion at his Tillage on the
All^any, he went finm house to
house for three days, mmoundng
wherever he went tiiat he had had
a dream, and wished to find some one
to guess it On the third day, a
Seneca told him that he could relate
his dream. Seeing him nearly naked
and shivering with cold, he slid;
“ You shall henceforth be called
O-no'-no,” meaning “ cold.” This sig¬
nified that his name, Gy-an^^wa-ka,
should pa^ away from him, and with
it his title as a diief He then ex¬
plained the interpretation to Corn-
planter more fully: “That he had
had a sufficient term of service for
the good of the nation. That he was
grown too old to be of much further
use as a warrior or as a coimseUor,
and that he must therefore appoint a
succe^r. That if he wbhed to pre¬
serve the continued good-will of the
Great Spirit, be must remove from
his house and sight every article of
the workmanship or invention of the
Ch. II.]
a divine monition, and followed its injunctions to tlie
utmost extremity. Their notions upon this subject
recall to remembrance the conceit of Homer, that
“ dreams descend from Jove.”
During the first four days the people were with¬
out a feast, from the fact that the observances them¬
selves did not require the assembling of the people
at the council-house. But entertainments were
given in the evenings at private houses, where the ■
night was devoted to the dance. Another amuse¬
ment at this particular season was the Snow-snake
game, which, like all Indian games, was wont to
arouse considerable interest.
On the morning of the fifth day, soon after dawn,
the White Dog was burned on an altar of wood
erected by the keepers of the faith near the council-
house. It is difilcult, from outward observation, to
draw forth the true intent with which the dog was
burned. The obscurity with which the object was
veded has led to various conjectures. Among other
things, it has been pronounced a sacrifice for sin.
■white man.” Coraplanter, having
listened ■with earnest attention to this
interpretation, confessed that it -was
correctly guessed, and that he was
resolved to execute it. His presents,
which he had received from Wash¬
ington, Adams, Jefferson, and others,
he collected together, with the excep¬
tion of his tomahawk, and burned
them up. Among the presents thus
consumed was a full uniform of an
American officer, including an elegant
sword and his medal given him by
Washington. He then selected an
old and intimate friend to be his suc¬
cessor, and sent to him his tomahawk
and a belt of wampum, to announce
his resolution and liis wishes. Al¬
though contrary to their customs, the
Senecas, out. of reverence for his ex¬
traordinary dream, at once raised up
as a chief the person selected by Corn-
planter, and invested him with the
name of Gy-ant' -wa-ka, which he bore
during his life. Oornplanter after
this event, was always known among
the Iroquois under the name of
0-no' -no. This tomahawk, the last
relic of Oornplanter, is now in the
State Historical Collection at Albany.
216 SPIRIT OP THE LEAGUE. [Book II.
In the religious system of the Iroquois, there is no
recognition of -the doctrine of atonement for sin^ or
of the absolution or forgiveness of sins. Upon this
whole subject, their system is silent. An act once
done, was registered beyond the power of change.
The greatest advance upon this point of faith was,
the belief that good deeds cancelled the evil, thus
placing heaven, through good works, within the
reach of all. The notion that this was an expiation
for sin, is thus refuted by their system of theology
itself. The other idea, that the sins of the people,
by some mystic process, were transferred to the dog,
and by him thus borne away, on the principle of
the scapegoat of the Hebrews, is also without any
foundation in truth. The burning of the dog had
not the slightest connection with the sins of the
people. On the contrary, the simple idea of the
sacrifice was, to send up the spirit of the dog as a
messenger to the Grreat Spirit, to announce their
continued fidelity to his service, and, also, to convey
to hirri their united thanks for the blessings of the
year. The fidelity of the dog, the companion of
the Indian, as a hunter, was emblematical of their
fidelity. No messenger so trusty could be found to
bear their petitions to the Master of life. The Iro¬
quois believed that the Great Spirit made a covenant
with their fathers to the effect, that when they
should send up to him the spirit of a dog, of a
spotless white, he would receive it as the pledge of
their adherence to his worship, and his ears would
thus be opened in a special manner to their peti-
Ch. II]
tions. To approach Hd-werirne’ -yu in the most ac¬
ceptable manner, and to gain attention to their
thanksgiving acknowledgments and supplications in
the way of his own appointing, was the end and
object of burning the dog. They hung around his
neck a string of white wampum, the pledge of their
faith. They believed that the spirit of the dog
hovered around the body until it was committed to
the flames, when it ascended into the presence of
the Great Spirit, itself the acknowledged evidence
of their fidelity, and bearing also to him the united
thanks and supplications of the people. This sacri¬
fice was the most solemn and impressive manner of
drawing near to the Great Spirit known to the Iro¬
quois. They used the spirit of the dog in precisely
the same manner that they did the incense of to¬
bacco, as an instrumentality through which to com¬
mune with their Maker. This sacrifice was their
highest act of piety.
The burning of the dog was attended with many
ceremonies. It was first taken down and laid out
upon a bench in the council-house, while the fire of
the altar was kindling. A speech was then made
over it by one of the keepers of the faith, in which
he spoke of the antiquity of this institution of their
fathers, of its importance and solemnity, and finally
enjoined upon them all to direct their thoughts to
the Great Spirit, and unite with the keepers of the
faith in these observances. He concluded with
thanking the Great Spirit, that the lives of so many
of them had been spared through another year.
[Book II,
A cliant or song, appropriate to the occasion, was
then sung, the people joining in chorus. By the
time this was over, the altar was blazing up on every
side ready for the offering. A procession was then
formed, the officiating keeper of the faith preceding,
followed by four others bearing the dog upon a
kind of bark litter, behind which came the people
in Indian file. A loud exclamation, in the nature
of a war-whoop, announced the starting of the pro¬
cession. They moved on towards the altar, and
having marched around it, the keepers of the faith
halted, facing the rising sun. With some immaterial
ceremonies, the dog was laid upon the burning altar,
and as the fiames surrounded the offermg, the offici¬
ating keeper of the faith, by a species of ejacula¬
tion, upon a high key, thrice repeated, invoked the
attention of the Great Spirit.
“ Qua, qua, qua : — (Hail, hail, hail) Thou who hast created all
things, who rulest all things, and who givest laws and commands to
thy creatures, listen to our words. We now obey thy commands.
That which thou hast made is returning unto thee. It is rising to
thee, by which it will appear that our words are true.”^
Several thanksgiving songs or chants, in measured
verse, were then sung by the keepers of the faith,
the people joining in chorus. After this, was made
the great thanksgiving address of the Iroquois. The
keeper of the faith appointed to deliver it, invoked
the attention of Ha-wen-ne’ -yu by the same thrice-
1 Some leaves of tobacco were at- dog’s neck, witli the incense of which
tached to th^ wampum around the this invocation was made.
Ch. II.]
repeated exclamation. As the speech progressed,
he threw leaves of tobacco into the fire from time
to time, that its incense might constantly ascend
during the whole address. The following is the
address, as delivered among the Senecas : ^ —
#
“ Hail, Hail, Hail : — ^Listen now, with an open ear, to the words
of thy people, as they ascend to thy dwelling, in the smoke of our
offering. Behold thy people here assembled. Behold, they have
come up to celebrate anew the sacred rites thou hast given them.
Look down upon us beneficently. Give us wisdom faithfully to ex¬
ecute thy commands.
“ Continue to listen : — The united voice of thy people continues
to ascend to thee. Forbid, by thy wisdom, all things which shall
tempt thy people to relinquish their ancient faith. Give us power
to celebrate at all times, with zeal and fidelity, the sacred ceremonies
which thou hast given us.
“ Continue to listen ; — Give to the keepers of the faith wisdom to
execute properly thy commands. Give to our warriors, and our
mothers, strength to perform the sacred ceremonies of thy institution.
We thank thee, that, in thy wisdom, thou hast given to us these com¬
mands. We thank thee, that thou hast preserved them pure unto
this day.
“Continue to listen ; — ^We thank thee, that the lives of so many
of thy children are spared, to participate in the exercises of this oc¬
casion. Our minds are gladdened to be made partakers in the ex¬
ecution of thy commands.
“We return thanks to our mother, the earth, which sustains us.
We thank thee, that thou hast caused her to yield so plentifully of
her fruits. Cause that, in the season coming, she may not withhold
of her fulness, and leave any to suffer for want.
“We return thanks to the rivers and streams, which run their
* Taken down by Ea-sa-no-an'-da, generation, and unchanged in its
(Ely S. Parker) as delivered by his essential particulars. Sose-ha'-wdhaa
grandfather, Sose-ha'-wa, at Tona- delivered it thus for the past twenty-
wanda. This is the ancient address five years at Tonawanda.
handed down from generation to
[Book IL
courses upon the bosom of our mother the earth. We thank thee,
that thou hast supplied them with life, for our comfort and support.
Grant that this blessing may continue.
“ We return thanks to all the herbs and plants of the earth. We
thank thee, that in thy goodness thou hast blest them all, and given
them strength to preserve our bodies healthy, and to cure us of the
diseases inflicted upon us by evil spirits. We ask thee ill>t to take
from us these blessings.
“ We return thanks to the Three Sisters. We thank thee, that
thou hast provided them as the main supporters of our lives. We
thank thee for the abundant harvest gathered in during the past
season. We ask that Our Supporters may never fail us, and cause
our children to suffer from want.
“We return thanks to the bushes and trees which provide us with
fruit. We thank thee, that thou hast blessed them, and made them
to produce for the good of thy creatures. We ask, that they may
not refuse to yield plentifully for our enjoyment.
“ We return thanks to the winds, which, moving, have banished
all diseases. We thank thee that thou hast thus ordered. We ask
the continuation of this great blessing.
“ We return thanks to our grandfather He'-no. We thank thee,
that thou hast so wisely provided for our happiness and comfort, in
ordering the rain to descend upon the earth, giving us water, and
causing all plants to grow. We thank thee, that thou hast given
us He'-no, our grandfather, to do thy vsdll in the protection of thy
people. We ask that this great blessing may be continued to us.
“ We return thanks to the moon and stars, which give us light
when the sun has gone to his rest. We thank thee, that thy wisdom
has so kindly provided, that light is never wanting to us. Continue
unto us this goodness.
“ We return thanks to the sun, that he has looked upon the earth
with a beneficent eye. We thank thee, that thou hast, in th}' un¬
bounded wisdom, commandea the sun to regulate the return of the
seasons, to dispense heat and cold, and to watch over the comfort
of thy people. Give unto us that wisdom, which will guide us in
the path of truth. Keep us from all evil ways, that the sun may
never hide his face from us for shame, and leave us in darkness.
Ch. IL]
“We return tlianks to the Ho-no-che-no'-Tceh} We thank thee, that
thou hast provided so many agencies for our good and happiness.
“ Lastly, we return thanks to thee, our Creator and Euler. In
thee are embodied all things. We believe thou canst do no evil;
that thou doest all things for our good and happiness. Should thy
people disobey thy commands, deal not harshly with them ; but be
kind to us, as thou hast been to our fathers in times long gone by.
Hearken unto our words as they have ascended, and may they be
pleasing to thee our Creator, the Preserver and Ruler of all things,
visible and invisible. Na-hoT
After tlie delivery of this address, the people,
leaving the partly consumed offering, returned to
the council-house, where the Feather dance was
performed. With this the religious exercises of the
day were concluded. Other dances, however, fol¬
lowed, for the entertainment of the people, and the
day and evening were given up to this amusement.
Last of all came the feast, with which the proceed¬
ings of the day were terminated.
On the morning of the sixth day, the people
again assembled at the place of council. This day
was observed in about the same manner as one of
their ordinary religious days, at which the Thanks¬
giving dance was introduced.
^ The Ho no-che-no'-keh included It should also be noticed that the
the whole spiritual world, or subor- leading objects in the natural world
dinate spirits created by Ha-wen-ne'- which are made the subject of their
yu. They were believed by the Iro- thanks, are designed to include all
quois to be mere agencies or instru- lesser objects. Under each head, by
mentalities through whom the Great a figure of speech, whole classes of
Spirit administered the government objects were included. Thus “the
of the world. They were also be- rivers and streams” include all bodies
lieved to have been created to minis- of water, springs, fishes, <fec. ; “ the
ter to the happiness and protection of wind” includes aU the birds of the
the Indian upon earth. air.
[Book II.
The seventli and last day was commenced with
tlie Ahrdo'-weh ; after whicli the Peach-stone game
was introduced, with the determination of which
ended the New Year’s jubilee.
Other incidents and circumstances connected with
the worship of the Iroquois might be pointed out,
and would be necessary to a full explanation of the
details of their religious system ; but sufficient has
been presented to exhibit its framework, and the
principles upon which it rested. No attempt has
been made to furnish a picture of either of these
religious councils, by a minute description of their
proceedings. All the detail has necessarily been
omitted. To realize these festive and religious cer¬
emonials of our primitive inhabitants, it would be
necessary to have a delineation of the incidents of
each day, step by step, a description of the dances,
the several games, and of the preparation of the
feast, and also an explanation of their modes of
social intercourse and of action, the spirit by which
the people were animated, and the general character
of the scene.
These festivals have been observed from genera¬
tion to generation, and at the same seasons of the
year, upon the Mohawk, at Oneida, in the valley of
Onondaga, on the shore of the Cayuga, and in the
several villages of the Senecas. Before the voice
of the white man was heard in these peaceful and
secluded retreats of the forest, that of the Indian had
been lifted up to the Great Spirit with thanksgiving
and praise. The origin of these festivals is lost, as
Ch. II.]
well as tlie date and order of their institution ; but
the Iroquois believe that they have been observed
among them, at least since the formation of tlie
League. They have no tradition, which professes
to have taken the custody of these dates and
events.
To one who has witnessed these observances
from time to time, and learned to comprehend the
principles and motives in which they originated,
they possess a peculiar but almost indefinable inter¬
est. These simple religious rites of a people, sitting,
it must be admitted, near the full meridian of nat¬
ural religion, are calculated to fill the mind with
serious impressions. In their earnest and constant
efforts to draw near to the great Author of their
being, to offer thanks for the unnumbered blessings
streuTi upon their path, and to supplicate the con¬
tinuance of that watchful care without which there
was no preservation, there is a degree of heart-felt
piety which the mind cannot resist. We may de¬
rive instruction from the faith of any race, if it rises
above the grossness of superstition, into the regions
of spiritual meditation. The moral nature of man
unfolds with thought ; and the Indian, in the shades
of the forest, as well as Socrates in the groves of
Athens, or Moses upon the skirts of Sinai, may con¬
tribute some new lessons to the fund of moral
instruction.
In this and the preceding chapter, the design has
been to expose the structure of the worship of the
Iroquois, and to elucidate the beliefs by which it
fBoOK II.
was uplield. By tlie standard of Cliristian judg¬
ment, it must be confessed, that the Faith and Wor¬
ship of the Iroquois make up a system, which, in its
approaches to the truth, rises infinitely above the
theological schemes of all other races, both ancient
and modem, which originated independently of
revelation. Having a firm hold upon the great
truths of natural religion, they established a cere¬
monious, but simple worship. Unlike the bloody
ritual of the Aztecs, its infiuence upon the mind,
and upon the social life of the Indian, was mild,
humanizing and gentle. The fruits of their re¬
ligious sentiments, among themselves, were peace,
brotherly kindness, charity, hospitality, integrity,
truth and friendship ; and towards the Great Spirit,
reverence, thankfulness and faith. More wise
than the Greeks and Eomans in this great partic¬
ular, they concentrated all divinity into one Su¬
preme Being ; more confiding in the people than
the priestly class of Egypt, their religious teach¬
ers brought down the knowledge of the “Unut;
terable One” to the minds of all. Eminently pure
and spiritual, and internally consistent with each
other, the beliefs and the religious ceremonies
of the Iroquois are worthy of a respectful con¬
sideration. A people in the wilderness, shut out
from revelation, with no tablet on which to write
the history of passing generations, save the heart of
man, yet possessed of the knowledge of one Su¬
preme Being, and striving, with all the ardor of de¬
votion, to commune with him in the language of
Ch. II.] INFLUENCE OF THEIR WORSHIP. 225
thankfulness and supplication, is, to say the least, a
most extraordinary spectacle; not less sublime in
itself, than the spectacle of the persecuted Puritan,
on the confines of the same wilderness, worshipping
that God in the fulness of light and knowledge,
whom the Indian, however limited and imperfect
his conceptions, in the Great Spirit; most distinctly
discerned.
Their limited knowledge of the attributes which
pertained to a Being endued with creative power,
will not appear so surprising, when it is remember¬
ed to be the highest achievement of learning and
piety, fully to comprehend the marvellous perfec¬
tions of the Deity. When the complicated struc¬
tures of Egypt, Greece and Borne are brought un¬
der comparison with the simple and unpretending
scheme of theology of the children of the forest,
there is found reason to marvel at the superior
acuteness and profundity of the Indian intellect. It
may be safely averred, that if the sustaining faith,
and the simple worship of the Iroquois are ever fully
explored, and carefully elucidated, they will form
a more imperishable monument to the Indian,
than is afforded in the purity of his virtues, or
in the mournfulness of his destiny.
Book II, Chapter III
The New Religion. — Ga-ne-o-di'-yo, the Instructok. — Pretended
Revelation. — Sose-ha'wa, his successor. — Speech of Da-at-
GA-DOSE. — Speech of Sose-ha'-wa. — Doctrines of the New
Religion.
About the year eighteen hundred, a new religious
teacher arose among the Iroquois, who professed to
have received a revelation from the Great Spirit,
with a commission to preach to them the doctrines
with which he had been intrusted. This revelation
was received under circumstances so remarkable,
and the precepts which he sought to inculcate con¬
tained within themselves such evidences of wisdom
and beneficence, that he was universally received
among them, not only as a wise and good man, but
as one commissioned from Horwen-ne' -yic to become
their religious instructor. The new religion, as it
has since been called, not only embodied all the
precepts of the ancient faith, and recognized the
ancient mode of worship, giving to it anew the
sanction of the Great Spirit, but it also compre¬
hended such new doctrines as came in, very aptly,
to lengthen out and enlarge the primitive system,
without impairing the structure itself. Charges of
Ch. Ill]
imposture and deception were at first preferred
against liim, but disbelief of bis divine mission
gradually subsided, until, at tbe time of bis death,
tbe whole uncbristianized portion of tbe Iroquois
bad become firm believers in tbe new religion,
which, to tbe present day, has continued to be tbe
prevailing faith.
Tbe singular personage who was destined to ob¬
tain such a spiritual sway over tbe descendants of
tbe ancient Iroquois, was Oa-ne-o-di' -yo^ or “ Hand¬
some Lake,” a Seneca sachem of the highest class.
He was born at tbe Indian village of Gd-no-wau' -ges^
near Avon, about tbe year 1735, and died at Onon¬
daga in 1815, where be happened to be on one of
bis pastoral visits. By bu’tb be was a Seneca, of tbe
Turtle tribe, and a half-brother of tbe celebrated
Cornplanter, through a common father. Tbe best
part of bis bfe was spent in idleness and dissipation,
during which, although a sachem and ruler among
the Senecas for many years, and through the most
perilous period of their history, he acquired no par¬
ticular reputation. Eeforming late in life, in his
future career he showed himself to be possessed of
superior talents, and to be animated by a sincere
and ardent desire for the welfare of his race. He
appears to have adopted the idea of a revelation
from Heaven, to give authority and sanction to his
projected reformation. At this period, and for a
century preceding, the prevailing intemperance of
the Iroquois had been the fruitful source of those
domestic disorders, which, in connection with their
[Book II.
political disasters, seemed tlien to tlmeaten tlie speedy
extinction of tlie race. A temperance reformation,
nniTersal and radical, was the principal and the ul¬
timate object of the mission which he assumed, and
the one upon which he chiefly employed his influ¬
ence and his eloquence, through the residue of his
life. Elnowing that argument and persuasion were
feeble weapons in a contest with this mighty foe,
Handsome Lake had the sagacity to address himself
to the religious sentiments and the superstitious
fears of the people. To secure a more ready recep¬
tion of his admonitions, he clothed them with the
divine sanction ; to strengthen their moral principles,
he enforced anew the precepts of the ancient faith ;
and to insm’e obedience to his teaching, he held over
the wicked the terrors of eternal punishment. Trav¬
elling from village to village, among the several
nations of the League, with the exception of the
christianized Oneidas, and continuing his visits from
year to year, this self-appointed apostle to the Indians
preached the new doctrine with remarkable effect.
Numbei-s, it is said, abandoned their dissolute hab¬
its, and became sober and moral men ; discord and
contention gave place to harmony and order, and
vagrancy and sloth to ambition and industry. What
peculiar motives induced him, when past the merid¬
ian of life, to change the whole tenor of his past
career, and embark in this philanthi’opic enterprise
for the social and moral improvement of the Iro¬
quois, it may be difficult to ascertain. The origina¬
tion of this project has, at times, been ascribed to
Ch. Ill]
Cornplanter, as a means to increase liis own influ¬
ence; but tbis is not only improbable, but is ex¬
pressly denied. Tbe motives by wbicb Handsome
Lake claimed to be actuated were entirely of a re¬
ligious and benevolent character, and in pursuance
of the injunctions of his spiritual guides.
At the time of his supernatural visitation, about
the year 1800, Handsome Lake resided at De-o^no-
sorda-ga^ the village of Cornplanter, on the Allegany
river, in the State of Pennsylvania. As he explained
the matter to his brethren, having lain ill for a long
period, he had surrendered all hope of recovery, and
resigned himself to death. When in the hourly ex¬
pectation, of departure, three spiritual beings, in the
forms of men, sent by the Great Spirit, appeared
before him. Each bore in his hand a shrub, bearing
different kinds of berries, which, having given him
to eat, he was, by their miraculous power, immedi¬
ately restored to health. After revealing to him
the will of the Great Spirit, upon a great variety of
subjects, and particularly in relation to the prevail¬
ing intemperance, and having commissioned him to
promulgate these doctrines among the Iroquois,
they permitted him to visit, under their guidance,
the realm of the Evil-minded, and to behold with
his mortal eyes the punishments inflicted upon the
wicked, that he might warn his brethren of their
impending destiny. Like Ulysses and ^neas, he
was also favored with a glance at Elysium, and the
fehcities of the heavenly residence of the virtuous.
With his mind thus stored with divine precepts, and
[Book II.
witli Ms zeal enkindled by tbe dignity of bis mis¬
sion, GorTie-o-di'-yo at once commenced bis laborsd
After bis death, Sose-ha'^wa (Johnson) of Tona-
wanda was appointed bis snccessor, tbe first and only
person ever “raised np” by the Iroquois, and in¬
vested with tbe office of supreme Keligious Instnic-
tor. A sincere bebever in tbe verity of Ga-nerO-di'-
yds mission, and an eminently pure and virtuous
man, So&e-ha-wd has devoted bunself with zeal and
fidelity to tbe duties of bis office, as tbe spiritual
guide and teacher of tbe Iroquois. He is a grandson
of Handsome Lake, and a nephew of Eed Jacket,
and was bom at tbe Indian village of Gd^o-wwuJ-ges,
near Avon, about tbe year 1774, and still resides at
Tonawanda in tbe county of Genesee.
At tbe Mourning and Eeligious councils of tbe
League, wMcb are still held, at intervals of a few
years, among tbe scattered descendants of tbe chil¬
dren of tbe Long House, it has long been customary
to set apart portions of tw^o or three days to listen
to a discourse from Sose-ha'-wd upon tbe new re-
bgion. On these occasions, be explains minutely
tbe circumstances attending tbe supernatural visita¬
tion of Handsome Lake, and debvers tbe instructions,
word for word, which be bad been accustomed to
1 The Iroquois are ruider the im- possession of Blacksmith, at Tona-
pression that Handsome Lake received wanda, is simply a letter from Gen-
a liwnse from Washington to preach, eral Dearborn, dated in 1802, com-
There is no doubt that he applied to mending bis teachings. Sose-ha'-wH
the government durii^ the president^ (Johnson) fixes the period of this
of Jefferson for some recognition of revelation in June, 1800. Thisvener-
his mission ; but the paper -which able man has preached the doctrine
they stai call the licmse, no-w in the up-wards of thirty years.
Ch. Ill]
give during his own ministration. Handsome Lake
professed to repeat the messages which were given
to him from time to time by his celestial visitants,
with whom he pretended to be in frequent com¬
munication, and whom he addressed as his spiritual
guardians, thus enforcing his precepts as the direct
commands of the Great Spirit.
It is singular that the credulity, not only of the
people, but of their most intelligent chiefs should
have been sufficiently great to give credence to
these supernatural pretensions ; but yet it is in it¬
self no greater, than that indicated by their belief
in witchcraft, or in the omens of dreams. The in¬
fluence of the new religion has been extremely salu¬
tary and preservative, without the restraints of
which, the fears of Gd-ne~o-di' -yo might have been
realized ere this, in the rapid decline, if not extinc¬
tion of the race. Their downward tendencies were
arrested, and their constant diminution of numbers
was changed to a gradual increase. Its beneficent
effects upon the people doubtless contributed more
to its final establishment than any other cause.
At their councils and religious festivals, it was
customary for the chiefs and keepers of the faith to
express their confidence in the new religion, and to
exhort others to strengthen their belief The late
Abraham La Fort, De-dt-ga-doos^ an educated On¬
ondaga sachem, thus expressed himself upon this
subject at a Mourning council of the Iroquois, held
at Tonawanda as late as October, 1847 : —
“ Let us observe the operations of nature. The year
232 SPIRIT OF THE LEAGUE. [Book II.
is divided into seasons, and every season has its fruits.
The birds of the air, though clothed in the same
dress of feathers, are divided into many classes;
and one class is never seen to associate or intermin¬
gle with any but its own kind. So with the beasts
of the field and woods ; each and every class and
species have their own separate rules by which they
seem to be governed, and by which their actions
are regulated. These distinctions of classes and
colors the Great Spirit has seen fit to make. But
the rule does not stop here ; it is universal. It em¬
braces man also. The human race was created and di¬
vided into different classes, whch were placed separate
from each other, having different customs, manners,
laws and religions. To the Indian, it seems that no
more religion had originally been given than was to
be found in the operations of nature, which taught
him that there was a Supreme Being, aU powerful
and all wise ; and on this account, as well as on ac¬
count of his great goodness, they learned to love
and reverence him. But in these latter times, when
the restless and ambitious spirit of the white-skinned
race had crossed the boundary line, and made in¬
roads upon the manners, customs and primitive re¬
ligion of the Indian, the Great Spirit determined to,
and through his servant Gorne-o-di'-yo did reveal his
will to the Indian. The substance of that will was no
more than to confirm their ancient belief that they
were entitled to a different religion, a religion adapted
to their customs, manners and ways of thinking.” ^
' Furnished to the author by ffa-sa-no-an’da, (Ely S. Parker,) from notes
taken at the time.
Ch. III.]
23B
As tlie discourse delivered by 8ose-Tia' -wa^ from
time to time, contains a very full exposition of tbeir
ancient beliefs, and mode of worship, together with
the recent views introduced by Handsome Lake,
mingled up in one collection, presenting, probably,
a better idea of their ethical and religious system
than could be conveyed in any other manner, it
is given entire, and will explain itself.^
“ The Mohawks, the Onondagas, the Senecas, and
our children (the Oneidas, Cayugas and Tuscaroras)
have assembled here to-day to listen to the repeti¬
tion of the will of the Great Spirit, as communi¬
cated to us from heaven through his servant, Gor
ne-o-di'-yo.
“Chiefs, warriors, women and children: — We
give you a cordial welcome. The sun has advanced
far in his path, and I am warned that my time to
instruct you is limited to the meridian sun. I must
therefore hasten to perform my duty. Turn your
minds to the Great Spirit, and listen with strict
attention. Think seriously upon what I am about
to speak. Reflect upon it well, that it may beneflt
you and your children. I thank the Great Spirit
that he has spared the lives of so many of you to
be present on this occasion. I return thanks to him
that my life is yet spared. The Great Spirit looked
^ The subjoined translation was pre- has listened to its delivery on several
pared by Ha-sa-no-an' -dd, (Ely S. occasions, and is perfectly familiar
Parker,) from copious notes taken by with the subject. With some slight
him at the time of its last delivery in alterations, the language is his own.
October, 1848, at a general Mourning This discourse, as it is given, was
council of the Iroquois, held at Tona- made on the forenoons of the 4th, 6th
wanda. It is proper to add, that he and 6th days of October, 1848.
[Book IL
down from heaven upon the sufferings and the wan¬
derings of his red children. He saw that they had
greatly decreased and degenerated. He saw the
ravages of the fire-water among them. He there¬
fore raised up for them a sacred instructor, who
having lived and travelled among them for sixteen
years, was called from his labors to enjoy eternal
felicity with the Great Spirit in heaven. Be patient
while I speak. I cannot at all times arrange and
prepare my thoughts with the same precision. But
I will relate what my memory bears.
“ It was in the month of O-nike'-ya^ (June,) that
Handsome Lake was yet sick. He had been ill
four yeai’s. He was accustomed to tell us that he
had resigned himself to the will of the Great Spirit.
‘ I nightly returned my thanks to the Great Spirit,’
said he, ‘ as my eyes were gladdened at evening by
the sight of the stars of heaven. I viewed the or¬
namented heavens at evening, through the opening
in the roof of my lodge, with grateful feelings to
my Creator. I had no assurance that I should at
the next evening contemplate his works. For
this reason my acknowledgments to him were more
fervent and sincere. When night was gone, and
the sun again shed his light upon the earth, I saw,
and acknowledged in the return of day his continued
goodness to me, and to all mankind. At length I
began to have an inward conviction that my end
was near. I resolved once more to exchange friend¬
ly words with my people, and I sent my daugh¬
ter to summon my brothers Gy-ant'-worka^ (Corn-
Ch. III.]
planter,) and Ta-ioan' -ne-ars^ (Blacksnake.’) She
hastened to do liis bidding, but before she returned,
be bad fallen into insensibility, and apparent death.
Ta-wan'-ne-m^s^ upon returning to the lodge, hasten¬
ed to his brother’s couch, and discovered that por¬
tions of his body were yet warm. This happened
at early day, before the morning dew had dried.
When the sun had advanced half-way to the me¬
ridian, his heart began to beat, and he opened his
eyes. Ta-^oart! -ne-ars asked him if he was in his
right mind ; but he answered not. At meridian he
again opened his eyes, and the same question was
repeated. He then answered and said, ‘ A man
spoke from without, and asked that some one might
come forth. I looked, and saw some men standing
without. I arose, and as I attempted to step over
the threshold of my door, I stumbled, and should
have fallen had they not caught me. They were
three holy men who looked alike, and were dressed
alike. The paint they wore seemed but one day
old. Each held in his hand a shrub bearing differ¬
ent kinds of fruit. One of them addressing me
said, ‘We have come to comfort and relieve you.
Take of these berries and eat ; they will restore you
to health. We have been witnesses of your length¬
ened illness. We have seen with what resignation
you have given yourself up to the Great Spirit.
We have heard your daily return of thanks. He
has heard them all. His ear has ever been open to
hear. You were thankful for the return of night,
when you could contemplate the beauties of heaven.
[Book II.
You were accustomed to look upon the moon, as she
coursed in ker nightly paths. When there were no
hopes to you that you would again behold these
things, you willingly resigned yourself to the
mind of the Great Spirit. This was right. Since
the Great Spirit made the earth and put man upon
it, we have been his constant servants to guard and
protect his works. There are four of us. Some
other time you will be permitted to see the other.
The Great Spirit is pleased to know your patient
resignation to his will. As a reward for your devo¬
tion, he has cured your sickness. Tell your people
to assemble to-morrow, and at noon go in and speak
to them.’ ’ After they had further revealed their
intentions concerning him they departed.
“ At the time appointed Handsome Lake appear¬
ed at the council, and thus addressed the people
upon the revelations which had been made to him :
‘ I have a message to deliver to you. The servants
of the Great Spirit have told me that I should yet
live ujDon the earth to become an instructor to my
people. Since the creation of man, the Great Spirit
has often raised up men to teach his children what
they should do to please him ; but they have been
unfaithful to their trust. I hope I shall profit by
their example. Your Creator has seen that you
have transgressed greatly against his laws. He made
man pure and good. He did not intend that he
should sin. You commit a great sin in taking the fire¬
water. The Great Spirit says that you must abandon
this enticing habit. Your ancestors have brought
Ch. Ill] THE HEW EELIGIOH. 237
great misery and suffering upon yon. They first took
the fire-water of the white man, and entailed upon
you its consequences. None of them have gone to
heaven. The fire-water does not belong to you. It
was made for the white man beyond the great
waters. For the white man it is a medicine ; but
they too have violated the will of their Maker. The
Great Spirit says that drunkenness is a great crime,
and he forbids you to indulge in this evil habit. His
command is to the old and young. The abandon¬
ment of its use will relieve much of your sufferings,
and greatly increase the comfort and happiness of
your children. The Great Spirit is grieved that so
much crime and wickedness should defile the earth.
There are many evils which he never intended
should exist among his red children. The Great
Spirit has, for many wise reasons, withheld from
man the number of his days ; but he has not left
him without a guide, for he has pointed out to him
the path in which he may safely tread the journey
of life.
“ ‘ When the Great Spiiit made man, he also
made woman. He instituted marriage, and enjoin¬
ed upon them to love each other, and be faithful
It is pleasing to him to see men and women obey
his will. Your Creator abhors a deceiver and a hy¬
pocrite. By obeying his commands you will die an
easy and a happy death. When the Great Spirit
instituted marriage, he ordained to bless those who
were faithful with children. Some women are un¬
fruitful, and others become so by misfortune. Siich
[Book 11.
have great opportunities to do much good. There
are many orphans, and many poor children whom they
can adopt as their own. If you tie up the clothes of
an orphan child, the Great Spirit will notice it, and
reward you for it. Should an orphan ever cross
your path be kind to him, and treat him with ten¬
derness, for this is right. Parents must constantly
teach their children morality, and a reverence for
their Creator. Parents must also guard their chil¬
dren against improper marriages. They, having
much experience, should select a suitable match
for their child. When the parents of both parties
have agreed, then bring the young pair together,
and let them know what good their parents have
designed for them. If at any time they so far dis¬
agree that they cannot possibly live contented and
happy with each other, they may separate in mu¬
tual good feeling ; and in this there is no wrong.
When a child is born to a husband and wife, they
must give great thanks to the Great Spirit, for it is
his gift, and an evidence of his kindness. Let
parents instruct their children in their duty to the
Great Spirit, to their parents, and to their fellow-
men. Children should obey their parents and
guardians, and submit to them in all things. Dis¬
obedient children occasion great pain and misery.
They wound their parents’ feelings, and often drive
them to desperation, causing them great distress,
and final admission into the place of Evil Spirits.
The marriage obligations should generate good to
all who have assumed them. Let the married be
Ch. III.]
faithful to each other, that when they die it may
be in peace. Children should never permit their
parents to suffer in their old age. Be kind to
them, and support them. The Great Spirit requires
all children to love, revere and obey their parents.
To do this is highly pleasing to him. The happi¬
ness of parents is greatly increased by the affection
and the attentions of their children. To abandon
a wife or children is a great wrong, and produces
many evils. It is wrong for a father or mother-in-
law, to vex a son or daughter-in-law; but they
should use them as if they were their own chil¬
dren. It often happens that parents hold angry dis¬
putes over their infant child. This is also a great
sin. The infant hears and comprehends the angry
words of its parents. It feels bad and lonely. It
can see for itself no happiness in prospect. It con¬
cludes to return to its Maker. It wants a happy
home, and dies. The parents then weep because
their child has left them. You must put this evil
practice from among you, if you would live
happy.
“ ‘ The Great Spirit, when he made the earth,
never intended that it should be made merchandise ;
but he willed that all his creatures should enjoy it
equally. Your chiefs have violated and betrayed
your trust by selling lands. Nothing is now left of
our once large possessions, save a few small reserva¬
tions. Chiefs, and aged men — you, as men, have no
lands to sell. You occupy and possess a tract in
trust for your children. You should hold that trust
[Book II.
sacred, lest your children are driven from their
homes by your unsafe conduct. Whoever sells
lands offends the Great Spirit, and must expect a
great punishment after death.’ *
So$e-Jia'-wa here suspended the narration of the
discourse of Handsome Lake, and thus addressed
the council : —
“Chiefs, keepers of the faith, warriors, women
and children: — ^You all know, that our religion
teaches, that the early day is dedicated to the Great
Spirit, and that the late day is granted to the spirits
of the dead. It is now meridian, and I must close.
Preserve in your minds that which has been said.
Accept my thanks for your kind and patient atten¬
tion. It is meet that I should also return my thanks
to the Great Spirit, that he has assisted me thus far,
in my feeble frame, to instruct you. We ask you
all to come up again fb-morrow, at early day, to
hear what further may be said. I have done.”
The next morning, after the council had been
opened in the usual manner, Sose-ha'-wd thus con¬
tinued : —
“ Relatives, uncover now your heads and listen : —
The day has thus far advanced, and again we are
gathered around the council-fire. I see around me
the several nations of the Long House ; this gives iite
great joy. I see also seated around me my counsel¬
lors (keepers of the faith,) who have been regularly
appointed, as is the custom of our religion. Greet¬
ings have been exchanged with each other. Thanks
have been returned to Ga-ni-o-di'-yo. Thanks also
Ch. nL]
have been returned to our Creator, by the council
now assembled. At this moment the Great Spirit
is looking upon this assembly. He bears our words,
be knows our thoughts, and is always pleased to see
us gathered together for good. The sun is now
high, and soon it will reach the middle heavens. I
must therefore make haste. Listen attentively, and
consider well what you shall hear. I return thanks
to our Creator, that he has spared your lives through
the dangers of darkness. I salute and return my
thanks to the four Celestial beings, who have com¬
municated what I am about to say to you. I return
thanks to my grandfather, (Handsome Lake,) from
whom you first heard what I am about to speak.
We all feel his loss. We miss him at our councils.
I now occupy his place before you ; but I am con¬
scious that I have not the power which he pos¬
sessed.
“ Counsellors, warriors, mothers and children : —
Listen to good instruction. Consider it well. Lay
it up in your minds, and forget it not. Our Creator,
when he made us, designed that we should live by
hunting. It sometimes happens that a man goes
out for the hunt, leaving his wife with her friends.
After a long absence he returns, and finds that his
wife has taken another husband. The Great Spirit
says that this is a great sin, and must be put from
among us.
“The four Messengers further said, that 'it was
wrong for a mother to punish a child with a rod.
It is not right to punish much, and our Creator
[Book II.
never intended that children should be punished
with a whip, or be used with any violence. In
punishing a refractory child, water only is necessary,
and it is sufficient. Plunge them under. This is not
wrong. Whenever a child promises to do better,
the punishment must cease. It is wrong to continue
it after promises of amendment are made. Thus
they said.
“ It is right and proper always to look upon the
dead. Let your face be brought near to theirs, and
then address them. Let the dead know that their
absence is regretted by their friends, and that they
grieve for their death. Let the dead know, too,
how their surviving friends intend to live. Let
them know whether they will so conduct themselves,
that they will meet them again in the future world.
The dead will hear and remember. Thus they said.
“ Continue to listen while I proceed to relate what
further they said: — Our Creator made the earth.
Upon it he placed man, and gave him certain rules
of conduct. It pleased him also to give them many
kinds of amusements. He also ordered that the
earth should produce all that is good for man. So
long as the earth remains, it will not cease to yield.
Upon the surface of the ground berries of various
kinds are produced. It is the will of the Great
Spirit, that when they ripen, we should return our
thanks to him, and have a public rejoicing for the
continuance of these blessings. He made every¬
thing which we live upon, and requires us to be
thankful at all times for the continuance of his
Ch. IIL]
favors. When Our Life (corn, &c.) has again ap¬
peared, it is the will of the Great Ruler that we as¬
semble for a general thanksgiving. It is his will
also that the children be brought and made to par¬
ticipate in the Feather dance. Your feast must
consist of the new production. It is proper at these
times, should any present not have their names pub¬
lished, or if any changes have been made, to an¬
nounce them then. The festival must continue four
days. Thus they said. Uj)on the first day must
be performed the Feather dance. This ceremony
must take place in the early day, and cease at the
middle day. In the same manner, upon the second
day, is to be performed the Thanksgiving dance.
On the third, the Thanksgiving concert, Alirdo'-weh^
is to be introduced. The fourth day is set apart for
the Peach-stone game. All these ceremonies, insti¬
tuted by our Creator, mnst be commenced at the
early day, and cease at the middle day. At all
these times, we are required to return thanks to our
Grandfather Hd-no and his assistants. To them
is assigned the duty of watching over the earth, and
all it produces for our good. The great Feather
and Thanksgiving dances are the appropriate cere¬
monies of thanksgiving to the Ruler and Maker of
all things. The Thanksgiving concert belongs ap¬
propriately to our Grandfathers. In it, we return
thanks to them. During the performance of this
ceremony, we are required also to give them the
smoke of tobacco. Again, we must at this time re¬
turn thanks to our mother the earth, for she is our
[Book IL
relative. We must also return thanks to Our
Life and its Sisters. All these things are required
to be done by the Hght of the sun. It must not be
protracted until the sun has hid his face, and dark-
ne^ surrounds all things.
“Continue to listen: — We have a change of sea¬
sons. We have a season of cold. This is the hunt¬
ing season. It is also one in which the people can
amuse themselves. Upon the fifth day of the new
moon, 2^ia-go-wnlc~na^ (about Feb. 1st,) we are re¬
quired to commence the annual jubilee of thanks-
givins^ to our Creator. At this festival all can give
evidence of their devotion to the will of the Great
Spirit, by participating in all its ceremonies.
“ Continue to listen : — ^The four Messenger of the
Great Spirit have always watched over us, and have
ever seen what was transpuing among men. At
one time, Handsome Lake was translated by them to
the regions above. He looked down upon the earth
and saw a great assembly. Out of it came a man.
His garments were torn, tattered and filthy. His
whole appearance indicated great misery and pov¬
erty. They asked him how this spectacle appeared
to him. He replied that it was hard to look upon.
They then told him that the man he saw was a
drunkard. That he had taken the fire-water, and
it had reduced him to poverty. Again he looked,
and saw a woman seated upon the ground. She
was constantly engaged in gathering up and secret¬
ing about her person her worldly effects. They
said, the woman you see is inhospitable. She is too
Ch. hi.]
seMsli to spare anything, and will never leave her
worldly goods. She can never pass from earth to
heaven. Tell this to your people. Again he looked,
and saw a man carrying in each hand large pieces
of meat. He went about the assembly giving to
each a piece. This man, they said, is blessed, for
he is hospitable and kind. He looked again, and
saw streams of blood. They said, thus will the
earth be, if the fire-water is not put from among
you. Brother will kill brother, and friend friend.
Again they told him to look towards the east.
He obeyed, and as far as his vision reached, he saw
the increasing smoke of numberless distilleries aris¬
ing, and shutting out the light of the sun. It was a
horrible spectacle to witness. They told him that
here was manufactured the fire-water. Again he
looked, and saw a costly house, made and furnished
by the pale-faces. It was a house of confinement,
where were fetters, ropes and whips. They said
that those who persisted in the use of the fire-water
would fall into this. Our Creator commands us to
put this destructive vice far from us. Again he
looked, and saw various assemblages. Some of
them were unwilling to listen to instruction. They
were riotous, and took great pride in drinking the
strong waters. He observed another group who
were half inclined to hear, but the temptations to
vice which surrounded them allured them back,
and they also revelled in the fumes of the fire-water.
He saw another assemblage which had met to hear
instructions. This they said was pleasing to the
[Book IL
Great Spirit. He loves those who will listen and
obey. It has grieved him that his children are
now divided by separate interests, and are pursuing
so many paths. It pleases him to see his people
live together in harmony and quiet. The fire-water
creates many dissensions and divisions among us.
They said that the use of it would cause many to
die unnatural deaths ; many will be exposed to cold,
and freeze; many will be burned, and others will
be drowned while under the influence of the fire¬
water.
“ Friends and Eelatives : — ^All these things have
often happened. How many of our people have
been frozen to death ; how many have been burned
to death; how many have been drowned while
under the influence of the strong waters. The pun¬
ishments of those who use the fil’e-water commence
while they are yet on the earth. Many are now
thrown into houses of confinement by the pale
faces. I repeat to you, the Euler of us all requires
us to unite and put this evil from among us. Some
say that the use of the fire-water is not wrong,
and that it is food. Let those who do not believe
it wrong, make this experiment. Let all who use
the fire-water assemble and organize into a council ;
and those who do not, into another near them. A
great difference will then be discovered. The coun¬
cil of drunkards will end in a riot and tumult, while
the other will have harmony and quiet. It is hard
to think of the great prevalence of this evil among
us. Eeform, and put it from among you. Many
Ch. Ill]
resolve to use tlie fire-water until near death, when
they will repent. If they do this, nothing can save
them from destruction, for then medicine can have
no power. Thus they said.
“ AU men were made equal by the Great Spirit ;
but he has given to them a variety of gifts. To
some a pretty face, to others an ugly one ; to some
a comely form, to others a deformed figure. Some
are fortunate in collecting around them worldly
goods. But you are all entitled to the same privi¬
leges, and therefore must put pride from among
you. You are not your own makers, nor the build¬
ers of your own fortunes. All things are the ’gift
of the Great Spirit, and to him must be returned
thanks for their bestowal. He alone must be ac¬
knowledged as the giver. It has pleased him to
make differences among men; but it is wrong for
one man to exalt himself above another. Love
each other, for you are all brothers and sisters of
the same great family. The Great Spirit enjoins
upon all, to observe hospitality and kindness, espe¬
cially to the needy and the helpless; for this is
pleasing to him. If a stranger wanders about your
abode, speak to him with kind words ; be hospitable
towards him, welcome him to your home, and forget
not always to mention the Great Spirit. In the
morning, give thanks to the Great Spirit for the re¬
turn of day, and the light of the sun ; at night re¬
new your thanks to him, that his ruling power has
preserved you from harm during the day, and. that
[Book II.
night has again come, in which you may rest your
wearied bodies.
“ The four Messengers said further to Handsome
Lake: — Tell your people, and particularly the keepers
of the faith, to be strong-minded, and adhere to the
true faith. We fear the Evil-minded will go among
them with temptations. He may introduce the
fiddle. He may bring cards., and leave them among
you. The use of these are great sins. Let the
people be on their guard, and the keepers of the
faith be watchful and vigilant, that none of these
evils may find their way among the people. Let
the keepem of the faith preserve the law of moral
conduct in all its purity. When meetings are to be
held for instruction, and the people are preparing
to go, the Evil-minded is then busy. He goes from
one to another, whispering many temptations, by
which to keep them away. He will even follow
pemons into the door of the council, and induce
some, at that time, to bend their steps away. Many
resist until they have entered, and then leave it.
This habit, once indulged, obtains a fast hold, and
the evil propensity increases with age. This is a
great sin, and should be at once abandoned. Thus
they said.
“ Speak evil of no one. If you can say no good
of a person, then be silent. Let not your tongues
betray you into evil. Let all be mindful of this ;
for these are the words of our Creator. Let all
strive to cultivate friendship with those who sur¬
round them. This is pleasing to the Great Spirit.
Ch. ni]
“ Counsellors, warriors, women and children : — I
shall now rest. I thank you all for your kind and
patient attention. I thank the Great Spirit, that
he has spared the lives of so many of us to witness
this day. I request you all to come up again to¬
morrow at early day. Let us all hope, that, until
we meet again, the Creator and Euler of us all may
be kind to us, and preserve our lives. NorhoT
The council, oh the following day, was opened
with a few short speeches, from some of the chiefs
or keepers of the faith, returning thanks for the
privileges of the occasion, as usual at councils;
after which Sose-ha'^d^ resuming his discourse, spoke
as follows : —
“ Friends and Eelatives, uncover now your
heads: — Continue to listen to my rehearsal of the
sayings communicated to Handsome Lake by the
four Messengers of the Great Spirit. We have
met again around the council-fire. We have fol¬
lowed the ancient custom, and greeted each other.
This is right, and highly pleasing to our Maker.
He now looks down upon this assembly. He sees
us all. He is informed of the cause of our gather¬
ing, and it is pleasing to him. Life is uncertain.
While we live .let us love each other. Let us sym¬
pathize always with the suffering and needy. Let
us also always rejoice with those who are glad. This
is now the third day, and my time for speaking to
you is drawing to a close. It will be a long time
before we meet again. Many moons and seasons
will have passed, before the sacred council-brand
11*
[Book II.
stall be again -uncovered. Be watchful, therefore,
and remember faithfully what you may now hear.
“ In discoursing yesterday upon the duties of the
keepers of the faith, I omitted some things import¬
ant. The Great Spirit created this ojB&ce. He de¬
signed that its duties should never end. There are
some who are selected and set apart by our Maker,
to perform the duties of this office. It is therefore
their duty to be faithful, and to be always watching.
These duties they must ever perform during their
lives. The faithful, when they leave this earth, will
have a pleasant path to travel in. The same office
exists in heaven, the home of our Creator. They
vull take the same place when they arrive there.
There are dreadful penalties awaiting those keepers
of the faith, who resign their office without a cause.
Thus they said.
“ It was the original intention of our Maker, that
all our feasts of thanksgiving should be seasoned
with the flesh of wild animals. But we are sur
rounded by the pale-flxces, and in a short time the
woods will be all removed. Then there will be no
more game for the Indian to use in his feasts. The
tour Messengers said, in consequence of this, that
we might use the flesh of domestic .animals. This
will not be wrong. The pale-faces are pressing you
upon every side. You must therefore live as they
do. How far you can do so without sin, I will now
tell you. You may grow cattle, and build your¬
selves xvarm and comfortable dw^elling-houses. This
is not sin ; and it is all that you can safely adopt
Ch. Ill]
of tlie customs of the pale-faces. You cannot live
as they do. Thus they said.
, “ Continue to listen : — It has pleased our Creator
to set apart as our Life, the Three Sisters. For
this special favor, let us ever be thankful. When
you have gathered in your harvest, let the people
assemble, and hold a general thanksgiving for so
great a good. In this way you will show your
obedience to the will and pleasure of your Creator.
Thus they said.
“ Many of you may be ignorant of the Spirit of
Medicine. It watches over all constantly, and assists
the needy whenever necessity requires. The Great
Spirit designed that some men should possess the
.gift of skill in medicine. But he is pained to see a
medicine man making exorbitant charges for attend¬
ing the sick. Our Creator made for us tobacco. This
plant must always be used in administering medi¬
cines. When a sick person recovers his health, he
must return his thanks to the Great Spirit by means
of tobacco; for it is by his goodness that he is
made well. He blesses the medicine; and the
medicine man must receive as his reward whatever
the gratitude of the restored may tender. This is
right and proper. There are many who are unfortu¬
nate, and cannot pay for attendance. It is sufficient
for such to return thanks to the medicine man upon
recovery. The remembrance that he has saved the
life of a relative, will be a sufficient reward.
“Listen further to what the Great Spirit has been
pleased to communicate to us : — He has made us, as
[Book II
a race, separate and distinct from tlie pale-face. It
is a great sin to intermarry, and intermingle the
blood of the two races. Let none be guilty of this
transgression.
“ At one time the four Messengers said to Hand¬
some Lake, lest the people should disbelieve you,
and not repent and forsake their evil ways, we will
now disclose to you the House of Torment, the
dweUing-place of the Evil-minded. Handsome
Lake was particular in describing to us all that he
witnessed; and the course which departed spirits
were accustomed to take on leaving the earth.
There was a road which led upwards. At a certain
point it branched ; one branch led straight forward
to the Home of the Great Spirit, and the other
turned aside to the House of Torment. At the
place where the roads separated were stationed two
keepers, one representing the Good, and the other the
Evil Spirit. When a person reached the fork, if
wicked, by a motion from the Evil keeper, he turn¬
ed instinctively upon the road which led to the
abode of the Evil-minded. But if virtuous and
good, the other keeper directed him upon the
straight road. The latter was not much travelled ;
while the former was so frequently trodden, that no
grass could grow in the pathway. It sometimes
happened that the keepers had great difficulty in
deciding which path the person should take, when
the good and bad actions of the individual were
nearly balanced. Those sent to the House of Tor¬
ment sometimes remain one day, (which is there
Ch. Ill]
one of our years.) Some for a longer period. ^ After
they have atoned for their sins, they pass to heaven.
But when they have committed either of the great
sins, (witchcraft, murder, and infanticide,) they
never pass to heaven, but are tormented forever.
Having conducted Handsome Lake to this place, he
saw a large and dark-colored mansion covered with
soot, and beside it stood a lesser one. One of the
four then held out his rod, and the top of the house
moved up, until they could look down upon all that
was within. He saw many rooms. The first object
which met his eye, was a haggard-looking man ; his
sunken eyes cast upon the ground, and his form
half consumed by the torments he had undergone.
This man was a drunkard. The Evil-minded then
appeared, and called him by name. As the man
obeyed his call, he dipped from a caldron a quan¬
tity of red-hot liquid, and commanded him to drink
it, as it was an article he loved. The man did as
he was directed, and immediately from his mouth
issued a stream of blaze. He cried in vain for help.
The Tormentor then requested him to sing and make
himself merry, as was his wont while on earth,
after drinking the fire-water. Let drunkards take
warning from this. Others were then summoned.
There came before him two persons, who appeared
to be husband and wife. He told them to exer¬
cise the privilege they were so fond of while on the
earth. They immediately commenced a quarrel
of words. They raged at each other with such
violence, that their tongues and eyes ran out so far
[Book IL
they could neither see nor speak. This, said tkey,
is the punishment of quarrelsome and disputing
husbands and wives. Let such also take warniug,
and live together in peace and harmony. Next he
called up a woman who had been a witch. First
he plunged her into a caldron of boiling liquid.
In her cries of distress, she begged the Evil-minded
to give her some cooler place. He then immersed
her in one containing liquid at the point of freez¬
ing. Her cries then were, that she was too cold.
This woman, said the four Messengers, shall al¬
ways be tormented in this manner. He proceeded
to mention the punishment which awaits all those
who cruelly ill-treat their wives. The Evil-minded
next called up a man who had been accustomed to
beat his wife. Having led him up to a red-hot
statue of a female, he directed him to do that which
he was fond of while he was upon the earth. He
obeyed, and struck the figure. The sparks flew in
every direction, and by the contact his arm was
consumed. Such is the punishment, they said,
awaiting those who ill-treat their wives. From
this take seasonable warhing. He looked again
and saw a woman, whose arms and hands were
nothing but bones. She had sold fire-water to the
Indians, and the flesh was eaten from her hands and
arms. This, they said, would be the fate of rum-
sellers. Again he looked, and in one apartment
he saw and recognized Ho-ne-yd'-wus^ (Farmer’s
Brother,) his former friend. He was engaged in
removing a heap of sand, grain by grain ; and al-
Ch. ni.]
tliougli lie labored continually, yet the heap of sand
was not diminished. This, they said, was the punish¬
ment of those who sold land. Adjacent to the
house of torment was a field of corn filled with
weeds. He saw women in the act of cutting them
down 5 but as fast as this was done, they grew up
again. This, they said, was the punishment of lazy
women. It would be proper and right, had we
time, to tell more of this place of torment. But
my time is limited, and I must pass to other things.
“The Creator made men dependent upon each
other. He made them sociable beings ; therefore,
when your neighbor visits you, set food before him.
If it be your next door neighbor, you must give
him to eat. He will partake and thank you.
“ Again they said : — You must not steal. Should
you want for anything necessary, you have only to
tell your wants, and they will be supplied. This
is right. Let none ever steal anything. Children
are often tempted to take things home which do not
belong to them. Let parents instruct their children
in this rule.
“Many of our people live to a very old age.
Your Creator says that your deportment towards
them must be that of reverence and affection. They
have seen and felt much of the misery and pain of
earth. Be always kind to them when old and help¬
less. Wash their hands and face, and nurse them
with care. This is the will of the Great Spirit.
“ It has been the custom among us to mourn for
the dead one year. This custom is wrong. As it
[Book IL
causes tlie death of many cMldren, it must be aban¬
doned. Ten days mourn for the dead, and not
longer. When one dies, it is right and proper to
make an address over the body, telling how much
you loved the deceased. Great respect for the dead
must be observed among us.
“ At another time the four Messengers said to
Handsome Lake, they would now show him the
‘Destroyer of Villages,’ (Washington,^) of whom
yon have so frequently heard. Upon the road
leading to heaven he could' see a light, far away in
the distance, moving to and fro. Its brightness far
exceeded the brilliancy of the noonday sun. They
told him the journey was as follows : First, they
came to a cold spring, which was a resting-place.
From this point they proceeded into pleasant fairy
grounds, which spread away in every direction.
Soon they reached heaven. The light was dazzling.
Berries of every description grew in vast abundance.
Their size and quality were such, that a single ber¬
ry was more than sufficient to appease the appetite.
A sweet fragrance perfumed the air. Fruits of
every kind met the eye. The inmates of this celes¬
tial abode spent their time in amusement and re¬
pose. Ho evil could enter there. Hone in heaven
ever transgress again. Families w^ere reunited, and
dwelt together in harmony. They possessed a bod-
1 Washington -was named by the the Governors of all the provinces
Iroquois Sa-no-dd-gd'-ne-ars, which with which they had intercourse, and
sigt^es the Destroyer of Villages, afterwards continued the names to
The Presidents have ever since been their successors,
called by this name. They named
Ch. Ill]
ily form, the senses, and the remembrances of the
earthly life. But no white man ever entered
heaven. Thus they said. He looked, and saw an
inclosure upon a plain, just without the entrance of
heaven. Within it was a fort. Here he saw the
‘ Destroyer of Villages,’ walking to and fro within
the inclosure. His countenance indicated a great
and a good man. They said to Handsome Lake :
the man you see is the only pale-face who ever left
the earth. He was kind to you, when on the settle¬
ment of the great difficulty between the Americans
and the Great Crown, (^Go-welc -go-wd^ you were
abandoned to the mercy of your enemies. The
Crown told the great American, that as for his al¬
lies, the Indians, he might kill them if he liked.
The great American judged that this would be
cruel and unjust. He believed they were made by
the Great Spirit, and were entitled to the enjoyment
of life. He was kind to you, and extended over
you his protection. For this reason, he has been
allowed to leave the earth. But he is never per¬
mitted to go into the presence of the Great Spirit.
Although alone, he is perfectly happy. All faithful
Indians pass by him as they go to heaven. They
see him, and recognize him, but pass on in silence.
No word ever passes his lips.
“ Friends and Kelatives : — It was by the influence
of this great man, that we were spared as a people,
and yet live. Had he not granted us his protection,
where would we have been ? Perished, all perished.
“ The four Messengers further said to Handsome
[Book IL
Lake, tliey were fearful tkat, unless the people re¬
pented and obeyed his commands, the patience and
forbearance of their Creator would be exhausted;
that he would grow angry with them, and cause
their increase to cease.
“Our Creator made light and darkness. He
made the sun to heat, and shine over the world.
He made the moon, also, to shine by night, and
to cool the world, if the sun made it too hot
by day. The keeper of the clouds, by direction
of the Great Spirit, will then cease to act. The
keeper of the springs and running brooks will cease
to rule them for the good of man. The sun will
cease to fulfil its office. Total darkness will then
cover the earth. A great smoke will rise, and spread
over the face of the earth. Then will come out of
it all monsters, and poisonous animals created by the
Evil-minded ; and they, with the wicked upon the
earth, will perish together.
“ But before this dreadful time shall come, the
Great Spirit will take home to himself all the good
and faithful. They will lay themselves down to
sleep, and from this sleep of death, they will rise,
and go home to their Creator. Thus they said.
“ I have now done. I close thus, that you may
remember and understand the fate which awaits the
earth, and the unfaithful and unbelieving. Our
Creator looks down upon us. The four Beings from
above see us. They witness with pleasure this as¬
semblage, and rejoice at the object for which it is
gathered. It is now forty-eight years since we first
Ch. ni]
began to listen to tbe renewed will of our Creator.
I bave been unable, during tlie time allotted to me,
to rehearse all the sayings of Gd-ne-o-di'-yo. I
regret very much, that you cannot hear them all.
“ Counsellors, Warriors, Women and Children : —
I have done. I thank you all for your attendance,
and for your kind and patient attention. May the
Great Spirit, who rules all things, watch over and
protect you from every harm and danger, while you
travel the journey of life. May the Great Spirit
bless you all, and bestow upon you life, health,
peace and prosperity ; and may you, in turn, appre¬
ciate his great goodness Na-hoP
Book II, Chapter IV
Natiohal Dakces. — Inteuence of the Dance. — Costume. — War
Dance. — Speeches in the War Dance. — Great Feather
Dance. — Trotting Dance. — Fish Dance. — Dance for the
Dead. — Concerts.
SuFFiciEJfT Has been said in the preceding pages
to convey an impression of the nses of the Dance
among the Iroqnois. It remains to notice the sev¬
eral dances themselves, to point out some of the
characteristics of each, and also to exhibit more
fully the spirit of this amusement, and its power
over the minds of the people.
With the Iroquois, as with the red race at large,
dancing was not only regarded as a thanksgiving
ceremonial, in itself acceptable to the Great Spirit,
but they were taught to consider it a divine art, de¬
signed by Horwen-ne'^u for their pleasure, as well
as for his worship. It was cherished as one of the
most suitable modes of social intercourse between
the sexes, but more especially as the great instru¬
mentality for arousing patriotic excitement, and for
keeping alive the spirit of the nation. The popular
enthusiasm broke forth in this form, and was nour¬
ished and stimulated by this powerful agency.
These dances sprang, as it were, a living reflection
Ch. IV.]
from the Indian mind. With their wild music of
songs and rattles, their diversities of step and atti¬
tude, their graces of motion, and their spiiit-stirring
associations, they contain within themselves both a
picture and a realization of Indian life. The fii’st
stir of feeling of which the Indian youth was con¬
scious was enkindled by the dance; the first im¬
pulse of patriotism, the earliest dreams of ambition
were awakened by their inspiring influences. In
their patriotic, religious and social dances, into
which classes they are properly divisible, resided
the soul of Indian life. It was more in the nature
of a speU upon the people than of a rational guid¬
ing spirit. It bound them down to trivial things,
but it bound them together ; it stimulated them to
deeds of frenzy, but it fed the fiame of patriotism.
The Iroquois had thirty-two distinct dances, out
of which number twenty-six were claimed to be
wholly of their own invention. Twenty-one of
these are still in use among the present Iroquois.
To each a separate history and object attached, as
well as a different degree of popular favor. Some
were costume dances, and were performed by a
small and select band ; some were designed exclu¬
sively for females, others for warriors alone; but
the greater part of them were open to all of both
sexes who desired to participate. Many of these
dances, without doubt, have been handed down
among the Iroquois for centuries, transmitted from
generation to generation, until their origin is lost
even to tradition. Others spread throughout the
[Book H
wliole Indian family, and were known and nsed
from Maine to Oregon. Indian amusements, as well
as arts, were eminently diffusive, as Indian life was
mucii tke same from ocean to ocean. Tkey are bet¬
ter described by tbeir effects, than by a minute ex¬
amination of tbe mode, manner and cfrcumstances
of eacb in detail. It is to tbeir influence, as a
means of action, that they owe tbeu* chief impor¬
tance. And it is to tbe zeal and enthusiasm with
which they were cherished and performed, that at¬
tention should piincipally be directed. Their over¬
powering influence in arousing the Indian spirit,
and in excluding all thoughts of a different life, and
their resulting effect upon the fonnation of Indian
character cannot be too highly estimated.
The tenacity with which the Iroquois have always
adhered to these dances famishes the highest evi¬
dence of their hold upon the affections of the peo¬
ple. From the eaidiest days of the Jesuit missions,
the most unremitted efforts of the missionaries have
been put forth for their suppression. Christian
parties were organized at an early day in each na¬
tion, of such as were willing to abandon the dance,
and their religious festivals, and lead a different life.
These parties,* down to the present time, have al¬
ways been largely in the minority, except among
the imexpatriated Oneidas, who are now entirely
denationalized, and, perhaps, the Tuscaroras, who
are partially so ; but the body of the Senecas, On-
ondagas and Cayugas, upon theii* several reserva¬
tions, still cling to their ancient customs, and glory
Ch. IV.]
in the dance as ardently as did tlieir forefathers.
When it loses its attractions, they will cease to
be Indians.^
The Feather dance and the War dance were the
two great performances of the Iroquois. One had
a religious, and the other a patriotic character.
Both were costume dances. They were performed
by a select band, ranging from fifteen to twenty-
five, who were distinguished for their powers of en¬
durance, activity and spirit. Besides these, there
were four other costume dances. In the residue,
the performers, who were the people at large, ap¬
peared in their ordinary apparel, and sometimes
participated to the number of two or three hundred
at one time. The Iroquois costume may be called
strictly an apparel for the dance. This was the chief
occasion on which the warrior was desirous to ap¬
pear in his best attire. Before describing these
dances, it will be proper to notice the various arti¬
cles of apparel which made up the full dress cos¬
tume of the Iroquois.
One of the most prominent articles of apparel was
the Kilt, Gd-lcd'-alh^ (see plate, page 262,) which was
1 A Mourning council of the Iro¬
quois was held at Tonawanda, in
October, 1846, to raise up sachems.
There were about six hundred Iro-
qouLs in attendance, representing all
of the Six Nations. On the second
day the Great Feather Dance was
performed by a select band of On¬
ondaga and Seneca dancers. The
author then first had occasion to re¬
alize the magical influence which
these dances have upon the Indian,
It was impossible even for the specta¬
tor to resist the general enthusiasm.
It was remarked to Da-iit'-ga dose,
(Abraham La Fort,) an educated
Onondaga sachem, that they would be
Indians forever, if they held to these
dances. He replied, that he knew it,
and for that reason he would be the
last to give them up.
[Book II
secured around the waist by a belt, and descended to
the knee. In ancient times this was made of deer¬
skin. It was fringed and embroidered with porcu¬
pine quill-work. Some of these kilts would excite
admiration by the exactness of their finish and ad¬
justment, and the neatness of the material. In mod¬
ern times various fabrics have been substituted for
the deer-skin, although the latter is still used.
Upon the head-dress, Gus4d-weh^ (see plate, page
226,) the most conspicuous part of the costume, much
attention was bestowed. The frame consisted of a
band of splint, adjusted around the head, with a cross¬
band arching over the top, from side to side. A cap
of net-work, or other construction, was then made to
enclose the frame. Around the splint, in later times, a
silver band was fastened, which completed the lower
part. From the top, a cluster of white feathers de¬
pended. Besides this, a single feather of the largest
size, was set in the crown of the head-dress, inclin¬
ing backwards from the head. It was secured in a
small tube, which was fastened to the cross-splint,
and in such a manner as to allow the feather to re¬
volve in the tube. This feather, which was usually
the plume of the eagle, is the characteristic of the
Iroquois head-dress.
Next was the Leggin, Gise'-ha^ (see plate, page
263,) which was fastened abovn the knee, and de¬
scended upon the moccason. It was also made origi¬
nally of deer-skin, and ornamented with quill-work
upon the bottom and side, the embroidered edge
being worn in front. In later times, red broadcloth.
AH -TA-QUA-0-WEH,or MOCCASON .
Ch. IV.]
embroidered with, bead-work, as represented in tbe
plate, bas been substituted for deer-skin in most cases.
Muck ingenuity and taste were displayed in tbe de¬
signs, and in tbe execution of tbe work upon tbis
article of apparel. Tbe warrior might well be proud
of tbis part of bis costume.
Tbe Moccason, Ah-torquoro’ -weh^ (see plate, page
264,) was also made of deer-skin. In tbe modern
moccason, represented in tbe plate, tbe front part is
worked with porcupine quills after tbe ancient fash¬
ion, while tbe part which falls down upon tbe sides,
is embroidered with bead-work according to tbe
present taste.
Not tbe least important article was tbe belt, Gor
geh'4d^ (see plate, page 265,) which was prized as
highly as any part of tbe costume. Tbe one repre¬
sented in tbe plate is of Indian manufacture. These
belts were braided by band, tbe beads being inter¬
woven in tbe process of braiding. Belts of deer-skin
were also worn. These belts were worn over tbe
left shoulder, and around tbe waist.
Arm Bands, Knee Bands, and Wrist Bands,
made of various articles and ornamented in divers
ways, were likewise a part of tbe costume. Some¬
times they were made of deer-skin, sometimes of
white dog-skin, and in* later times of red and blue
velvet, embroidered with bead-work, as represented
in tbe plate, page 392.
In addition to tbe knee-bands. Knee Battles of
deers’ hoofs, as shown in tbe figure, and in modern
times, of strips of metal, or of bells, made a neces-
KNEE RATTLE OF DEERS’ HOOFS.
The war-club used in the dance, was usually a light
article, of which the following is a representation.
The various articles of apparel which now make
up the costume of the Iroquois, are precisely the
same that they were at the epoch of the discovery.
No change has been made in the articles themselves,
although there have been changes in the materials of
which they xrere made. The deer-skin, in later
days, has been laid aside for the broadcloth, and the
porcupine quill for the bead. By making a resub¬
stitution of material, the original costume would be
recovered in full.
In preparing for the dance, all the articles above
Ch. IY.]
described were not necessarily used by eacb indi¬
vidual. Those strictly needful were the head-dress,
the belt and kilt, to which each wearer added such
ornaments and rattles as he was disposed. ITsu-
ally they were nude down to the waist, and also
below the knees, to give greater freedom to their
limbs. A great diversity could be seen in their
costumes when brought together in the dance, in
consequence of the different fabrics of which they
were composed, and the variety in their personal or¬
naments, notwithstanding every article of apparel
was of the same pattern. Specimens of full Iro¬
quois costumes, both male and female, are given in
the engravings which are introduced as frontis¬
pieces. These, and the several plates which are
given to illustrate the male costume in detail, will
save the necessity of any further description.
[Book II.
The two dances mentioned before this digression
were the highest in the popular favor. One was of
original invention, the other imported ; one was of
a strictly religious character, and the other of a patri¬
otic ; but both were equally effective to arouse the
enthusiasm of the people. All things considered,
however, the last of the two, the War dance, Wa--
sd'-sehj was the favorite. It was the mode of en¬
listment for a perilous expedition, the dance which
preceded the departure of the band, and with which
they celebrated their return. It was the dance at
the ceremony of raising up sachems, at the adoption
of a captive, at the entertainment of a guest, the
first dance taught to the young. It was not of Iro¬
quois origin, but was adopted from the Sioux, as its
name imports, reaching back through them to a re^
mote antiquity.^ The characteristic feature of this
dance ^ to be found in the speeches which were
made by those surrounding the band of dancers be¬
tween each tune, or at each break in the dance.
From this source the people derived as much enter¬
tainment, as they did excitement from the perform¬
ance itself. It was the only dance in which speeches
and replies were appropriate, or ever introduced;
and in this particular, it was a novelty, leading
oftentimes to the highest amusement. By these
‘ The name of the Sioux in the Sen- ascribed by some to the Shawnees,
eca dialect is Wd-sa'-seh-o-no. By and called 8a-wd-no'-o-no, or the
contraction and usage, the word Wd- Shawnee dance, this being the Seneca
sd'-seh is now used for the Sioux name of the Shawnees. One of the
dance, the name by which the War Iroquois names of this dance is
dance has always been known among JSfe-ja' ; but Wd-sd'-.iek is the custom-
the Iroquois. This dance has been ary name.
Oh. IV.]
speeches, which both relieved the performers and
diverted the people, the dance was lengthened out
to two, and even three hours, before the spirits of
the company were expended.
The War dance was usually performed in the
evening. It was only brought out on prominent
occasions, or at domestic councils of unusual inter¬
est. Fifteen made a full company, but oftentimes
twenty-five, and even thirty participated. After
the business of the day was disposed of, and the
dusk of evening had crept in, preparations began
for the dance. The people gathered within the
council-house, usually in increased numbers, because
of this expected entertainment, and arranging them¬
selves in favorable positions, they quietly awaited
the approach of the dancers. The arrangements
were made, including the selection of the number,
the appointment of the leader, and of the singers
of the war-songs, by the keepers of the faith. In
an adjacent lodge, the band assembled to array them¬
selves in their costumes, and to paint and decorate
their persons for the occasion. The war-whoop ever
and anon broke in upon the stillness of the evening,
indicating to the listening and expectant throng
within the council-house, that their preparations
were progressing to a completion. A keeper of the
faith, in the mean time, occupied the attention of the
people with a brief speech upon the nature and objects
of this dance. Presently, a nearer war-whoop ringing
through the air, announced that the band were ap¬
proaching. Preceded by their leader, and march-
[Book IL
ing in file to tlie beat of tbe drum, tbey drew near
to tbe conncil-bonse. As tbey came up, tbe crowd
gave way, tbe leader crossed tbe tbresbold, followed
quickly by bis feathered band, and immediately
opened tbe dance. In an instant tbey grouped
themselves within a circular ai’ea, standing thick to¬
gether, tbe singei’s commenced the war-song, tbe
drums beat time, and tbe dancers made tbe fioor
resound with their stirring feet. After a moment
tbe song ceased, and with it tbe dance ; tbe band
walking around a common centre to tbe beat of tbe
drum at half time. Another song soon commenced,
the drums quickened their time, and tbe dance was
resumed. In tbe middle of tbe song there was a
change in tbe music, accompanied with a sbgbt ces¬
sation of tbe dmice, after which it became more an¬
imated than before, until tbe song ended, and tbe
band again walked to tbe beat of tbe drum. Each
tune or war-song lasted about two minutes, and tbe
interval between them was about as long. These
songs were usually recited by four singers, using two
di’ums of tbe kind represented in tbe figure, to
mai’k time, and as an accompaniment. Tbe drums
beat time about twice in a second, tbe voices of the
singers keeping pace, thus making a rapid and
strongly accented species of music.^
* These vrar songs are in a dead of some of these songs as follows:
language, or, at all events, the Iro- “ I am brave and intrepid. I do not
qnois are unable to interpret them, fear death, nor any kind of torture.
They are in r^ulax verses, or Those who fear them are cowards,
measured sentences, and wer e learned They are less than women. Life is
by them with the dance originally, nothing to those who have courage,
dharlevoix has furnished a translation May my enemies be confounded with
Gh. IY.]
WAR DAJfCE.
It would be difficult, if not impossible, to describe
tbe step, except generally. With the whites, the
dancing is entirely upon the toe of the foot, with
rapid changes of position, and but slight changes of
attitude. But with the Iroquois, it was chiefly upon
the heel, with slow changes of position, and rapid
changes of attitude. The heel is raised and brought
down with great quickness and force, by muscular
strength, to keep time with the beat of the drum,
to make a resounding noise by the concussion, and
at the same time to shake the knee-rattles, which
contributed materially to the “pomp and circum¬
stance” of the dance. In the War dance, the atti¬
tudes were those of the violent passions, and conse¬
quently were not graceful. At the same instant of
time, in a group of dancers, one might be seen in
the attitude of attack, another of defence; one in
the act of drawing the bow, another of striking
with the war-club ; some in the act of throwing
the tomahawk, some of listening, or of watching an
opportunity, and others of striking the foe. These
riolent motions of the body, while they, perhaps,
increased the spirit and animation of the dance, led
to disagreeable distortions of the countenance, as
well as to uncouth attitudes. But, at the same time,
the striking costumes of the dancers, their erect
foiTus at certain stages of the figure, their supple¬
ness and activity, the wild music, the rattle of the
despair and rage.” These songs -vrere dance are of the same general char-
sung by captiTes at the torture ; and acter.
doubtless those used ii the War
2’72
[Book II.
dance, togetlier witli tlie excitable and excited throng
around them, made up a scene of no common in¬
terest.
In this dance, the war-whoop and the response
always preceded each song. It was given by the
leader, and answered by the band. A description
of this terrific outbreak of human voices is scarcely
possible. It was a prolonged sound upon a high
note, with a decadence near the end, followed* by
an abrupt and explosive conclusion, in which the
voice was raised again to the same pitch. The
whole band responded in a united scream upon
the same key with which the leader concluded, and
at the same instant.^
In this celebrated dance, therefore, which has
doubtless been used for centuries, and been per¬
formed throughout the whole area of the American
republic, we find this simple succession of acts : the
war-whoop and responses, the simultaneous com¬
mencement of the war-song and the dance, the
slight cessation at the middle of the tune, with a
change in the music, the renewal of the dance with
redoubled animation, and the final conclusion of the
war-song in perhaps less than two minutes from its
An attempt is here made to represent
this wild cry. It is given by the In¬
dian with wide open mouth. His voice
slides down the descending notes,
when he pauses an instant to take a
new inspu-ation, all which is to be ex¬
pended in the sudden and far reach¬
ing yell with which the piece con¬
cludes. On this last note, the whole
band join in cliorus, using the sylla¬
bles “ah um,” connected in one, or
somethbg like it.
Ch. IV.]
commencement; and lastly, the walk at the beat of the
drum around a central point for about two minutes,
until the war-whoop again sounded, and another war-
song was introduced. This round was continued, until
the spirit of the dancers began to flag, and the de¬
sires of the people had been reasonably gratified.
Without any speeches between the tunes to relieve
the band, it usually lasted about an hour ; but with
speeches, it often continued for three hours, with
unabated animation.
Any one present was at liberty to make a speech
at any stage of the dance. His desire was manifest¬
ed by a rap. At the sound the dance ceased, or, if
finished, and the band were walking, they were re¬
quired to stop, and all present, as well as the music,
to be silent. The only condition affixed to the right
of making a speech, was that of bestowing a present
at its close upon the dancers, or upon the one to
Avhom it was addressed. After the speech was con¬
cluded, and the present delivered, the war-whoop
and responses were again sounded, the drums beat,
the song and the dance commenced, a^d were ended
as before. Then followed another speech, and still
others, alternating with the songs, or suspending
the dance at the moment of its highest animation,
at the pleasure of the speaker. In this manner the
War dance was continued until the spirit of enjoy¬
ment began to subside, when the final war-whoop
put an end to the dance, and the band retired.
These speeches were often pleasantries between
individuals, or strictures upon each other’s foibles,
12*
[Book II.
or earnest exhortations, or perchance patriotic ebul¬
litions of feeling, according to the fancy of the per¬
son and of the moment. Some of them were re¬
ceived with rounds of applause, some with jeers,
and others with seriousness and deference. They
usually lasted but two or three minutes. The Indian
has a keen appreciation of wit, and is fond of both
jest and repartee, as well as of ridicule.
To convey a fuller impression of the character of
these speeches, and of the nature of the dance itself,
a few specimens will be introduced. These speeches
are short and rather unmeaning, when separated
from the occasion, and the connection in which they
were called forth. Those most interesting would
require an explanation of collateral circumstances to
be understood, and they are therefore excluded.
Those to be given are not particularly interesting ;
but they explain themselves, and will answer the
purpose for which they are introduced as fully as if
they sparkled with wit.
After the band came in and opened the War dance,
several songs were performed before any one was
disposed to interrupt them. All eyes were turned
upon the several costumes of the band, upon the
spirit and activity of individuals in the dance, and
the animation and enthusiasm of the party. Kound
after round followed, until the spirit of the company
was fully aroused, when it began to expend itself in
speeches and witticisms. The first rap was made
by To-no-ai' -0^ a humorous old chief. Silence being
restored, he spoke as follows : “ Friends and Rela-
Ch. IV.]
lives — I am occasionally fond of a drink of the
strong waters. I do not know kow it is with. Torya-
dorO-wuJi -huh^ (tke guest to wliom the War dance was
given ;) but presume it is sometMng tke same witk
kim, and tkerefore I send kim a sixpence to buy a
drink witk on kis way kome.” Gives tke money.
Again tke drum sounded, tke war-wkoop and re¬
sponses were given, and tke music and tke dance were
resumed. At tke end of tke tune anotker rap re¬
stored silence. Hd-sque' -soro^ anotker ckief, and one
somewkat noted for kis fondness for tke kre-water,
spoke as follows: “Friends and Relatives — I am
muck pleased witk tke dance, and kope it will con¬
tinue to be well sustained. I return my tkanks to
tke war-dancers for tke spirit witk wkick tkey per¬
form tkeir duty. I wisk tkem all prosperity and
long life. If any one skould look at me, tkey will
find tkat I keep my eye fixed upon tke dancers, and
furtkermore, tkat I kave a good eye, so muck so,
tkat one would tkink I wore glasses. I take from
my pocket a skilling for tke dancers.” Gives tke
money. Tke dance was tken resumed. At tke end
of tke song, tke speeck of Hd-sque'-sa-o called out
a reply from Sdrde-wd'-na^ as follows : “ Friends
and Relatives — We kave just keard some one on tke
otker side of tke kouse announce, tkat ke kad an
eye so brigkt tkat one would tkink ke wore specta¬
cles. But as ke kas a pair of red eyes, we must, I
suppose, conclude tkat ke uses red spectacles. Gives
tobacco to tke dancers. Tkis kit at Hd-sque' -sards
infirmity was received witk applause. Again tke
[Book IL
dance goes on as nsnal. Among tlie dancers were
men of all sizes, figures and lieiglits. There was one
warrior, especially, of such herculean proportions,
that he might be called a giant. He fui’nished a
theme for the next speech, which was made by Hor
sorTio-an’-da^ the dance having ceased, as follows:
“Friends and Kelatives — I admire the ease and
grace with which Horho'^ds manages his wonderful
proportions. He has eveiy reason to be proud of
his size and dignity. I propose to give him a pres¬
ent of two plugs of tobacco, supposing that it will
be sufficient for om quidT Gives the tobacco.
Morkd-yas received the tobacco with seeming pleas¬
ure, and the people the jest with considerable mer¬
riment. At the conclusion of the next song, he
thus replied: “Friends and Relatives — return
my thanks to Hasa-no-md da for his present. I
assure him that my intellectual capacities correspond
very justly with my physical dimensions. I hope
my brother will publish my fame from the rising to
the setting sun.” Again the war-whoop sounded,
the music opened, and the dance was renewed.
Other speeches were made from time to time,
some of which called forth applause, and in due
time a reply adapted to the case. After a number
had thus spoken, Sdde-wa'-mi rapped again. "When
the music and the dancers were still, he thus said :
“Friends and Relatives — I have made another
strike. I desire to make a present to the women
who have assisted in preparing the feast. But as I
cannot give presents to all, I wish to see the one
Ch.IV.]
2n
wto lias to-day eaten tLe most beef, and is considered
the most greedy. I request her to come forward
and receive the present.” One of them, Gi-an'-ok^
advanced and received the money, good-naturedly,
which the people applauded. After a few more
courses of the dance, a speech was made by 0-no'-
sd^ of a more serious cast, as follows : “ Friends
and Relatives — ^We have reason to glory in the
achievements of our ancestors. I behold with sad¬
ness the present declining state of our noble race.
Once the v*^arlike yell, and the painted band were
the terror of the white man. Then our fathers
were strong, and their power was felt and acknowl¬
edged far and wide over the American continent.
But we have been reduced and broken by the cunning
and rapacity of the white-skinned race. We are now
compelled to crave, as a blessing, that we may be al¬
lowed to live upon our own lands, to cultivate oui"
own fields, to drink from own springs, and to mingle
our bones with those of our fathers. Many winters
ago, our wise ancestors predicted that a great mon¬
ster, with white eyes, would come from the east,
and, as he advanced, would consume the land. This
monster is the white race, and the prediction is
near its fulfilment. They advised their children,
when they became weak, to plant a tree with four
roots, branching to the north, the south, the east
and the west ; and then collecting under its shade,
to dwell together in unity and harmony. This tree,
I propose, shall be this very spot. Here we will
gather, here live, and here die.” Grives tobacco to
278 SPIRIT OF THE LEAGUE. [Book II.
the dancers. The dance was then resumed as be¬
fore, and continued until a rap announced another
speech from To-no-ai'-o^ the first speaker, who, after
silence was restored, addressed the dancers : “ In my
view of the dance you do not do it as well as it
can be done ; although you doubtless have done as
well as you know how. When I was a young man,
I was the greatest dancer of my time. I did not
know any one who could surpass me in the War
dance. Furthermore, I was considered the best
singer of the war-songs. I hope, however, you
will continue to do the best you can, even though
you fail to perform this dance as well as it can be
done. I have another piece of the leaf which I
will turn over to the singers. I wish them to swal¬
low the juice, as it will make their voices clear, and
help their singing.” Gives the tobacco. Again
the dance was resumed. After the next tune, this
speech called out a reply from Ja-ese\ as follows:
“Friends and Kelatives — We have just heard a
speaker, on the other side of the house, boasting of
what he had done in his younger days. I do not
like to hear such high speaking of one’s self. I
should like to see To-no-ai'-o come out and show the
people what he can do, or what he used to do in
his younger days.” Gives money to the dancers.
Again the war-whoop sounded, the responses fol¬
lowed, and the music and the dance made the
house resound. In this manner was this famous
dance conducted by our primitive inhabitants
around their domestic council-fires.
Cfl. IV.]
These illustrations will suffice to exhibit the gener¬
al character of these speeches, as well as of the dance
itself. In the numerous addresses and witticisms
which the War dance called forth, the Iroquois took
the highest delight. They served the double pur¬
pose of relieving the dancers themselves, who would
soon have been exhausted by continuous exertion,
and of entertaining the peoj)le in the interval.
This was the secret of its great popularity as a
dance, and of its universal adoption. To this day,
a well-conducted War dance is the highest enter¬
tainment known among the Iroquois.
Second in the public estimation, but first intrinsi¬
cally, stood the great Feather dance, O-sto-weli -go-
wd^ sometimes called the Religious dance, because
it was specially consecrated to the worship of the
Great Spirit. The invention, or at least the intro¬
duction of this dance, is ascribed to the first To-do-
dd'-Jio^ at the period of the formation of the League.
In its Iroquois origin, they all concur. It was per¬
formed by a select band, ranging from fifteen to
thirty, in full costume, and was chiefiy used at their
religious festivals, although it was one of the prom¬
inent dances on all great occasions in Indian life.
This dance was the most splendid, graceful and re-
[Book II.
markable in tke whole collection, requiring greater
powers of endurance, suppleness and flexibility of
person, and gracefulness of deportment, than either
of the others. The saltandi or dancing art,
found in the Feather dance its highest achievement,
at least in the Indian family ; and it may be ques¬
tioned whether a corresponding figure can be found
among those which are used in refined communities,
which will compare with it in those particulars
which make up a spirited and graceful dance.
The music was furnished by two singers, seated
in the centre of the room, each having a turtle-shell
rattle of the kind represented in the figure,^ It
consisted of a series of songs or measured verses,
which required about two minutes each for their
recitation. They were all religious songs, some of
them in praise of the Great Spirit, some in praise
of various objects in nature which ministered to
their wants, others in the nature of thanksgivings
to Horweiv-ne'-yu^ or supplications of his continued
protection. The rattles were used to mark time,
and as an accompaniment to the songs. In using
them, they were struck upon the seat as often as
twice or thrice in a second, the song and the step
of the dancers keeping time, notwithstanding the
rapidity of the beat.
The band arrayed themselves in their costumes
in an adjacent lodge, came into the council-house,
^ To make this rattle they remove skin which is left attached to the
the animal from the shell, and after shell. The neck of the turtle is
drying it, they place within it a hand- then stretched over a wooden handle,
ful of flint-corn, and then sew up the
Ch. IV.]
and opened in all respects as in the case last de¬
scribed. Instead of grouping, however, within the
area of a circle, they ranged themselves in file, and
danced slowly around the council-house. When the
music ceased, the dance also was suspended, and the
party walked in colunm to the beat of the rattles.
After an interval of about two minutes, the rattles
quickened their time, the singers commenced an¬
other song, and the warriors, at the same instant,
the dance. The leader, standing at the head of the
column, opened, followed by those behind. As
they advanced slowly around the room, in the dance,
they gestured with their arms, and placed their
bodies in a great variety of positions, but, unlike
the practice in the War dance, always keeping their
forms erect. None of the attitudes in this dance
were those of the violent passions, but rather of the
mild and gentle feelings. Consequently, there were
no distortions either of the countenance or the body ;
but all their movements and positions were extremely
graceful, dignified and imposing. The step has the
same general peculiarities as that in the dance last
described, but yet is quite distinct from it. Each
foot in succession is raised from two to eight inches
from the floor, and the heel is then brought down
with great force as frequently, as the beat of the
rattles. Frequently one heel is brought down twice
or three times before it alternates with the other.
This will convey an impression of the surprising ac¬
tivity of this dance, in which every muscle of the
body appears to be strung to its highest degree of
[Book II.
tension. The concussion of the foot upon the floor
served the douhle purpose of shaking the rattles
and bells, which form a part of the costume, and
of adding to the noise and animation of the dance.
The dancers were usually nude down to the Avaist,
with the exception of ornaments upon their arms
and necks, as represented in the engraving, thus
exposing their Avell-formed chests, finely rounded
arms, and their smooth, evenly colored skins, of a
clear and brilliant copper color. This exposure of
the person, not in any sense displeasing, contributed
materially to the beauty of the costume, and gave
a striking expression to the figure of the dancer.
Such was the physical exertion put forth in this
dance, that before it closed, the vapor of perspira¬
tion steamed up, like smoke, from their uncovered
backs. 'No better evidence than this need be given,
that it was a dance full of earnestness and enthusi¬
asm. One of their aims was to test each other’s
powers of endurance. It not unfrequently happened
that a part of the original number yielded from ex¬
haustion before the dance was ended. Nothing but
practice superadded to flexibility of person and
great muscular strength would enable even an In¬
dian to perform this dance. When the popular ap¬
plause was gained by one of the band for spirited
or graceful dancing, he was called out to stand at
the head of the column, and lead the party : in this
way several changes of leaders occurred before the
final conclusion of the figure.
In this dance the women participated, if they
Ch. IV.]
were disposed. They wore, however, their ordinary
apparel, and entered by themselves at the foot of
the column. The female step is entirely unlike the
one described. They moved sideways in this figure,
simply raising themselves alternately upon each
foot from heel to toe, and then bringing down the
heel upon the fioor, at each beat of the rattle, keep¬
ing pace with the slowly advancing column. With
the females dancing was a quiet, and not ungraceful
amusement.
As a scene, its whole effect was much increased
by the arrangement of the dancers into column.
In this long array of costumes, the peculiar features
of each were brought more distinctly into view, and
by keeping the elliptical area around which they
moved, entirely free from the pressing throng of
Indian spectators, a better opportunity was afforded
to all to witness the performance. To one who has
never seen this dance, it would be extremely difficult
to convey any notion of its surprising activity, and
its inspiring influence upon the spectators. Kequir-
ing an almost continuous exertion, it is truly a mar¬
vellous performance.
The Thanksgiving dance, Gd-na'-o-uh^ was like¬
wise a costume dance, and given by a select band.
It resembles the one last described so closely, both in
step and plan, that it is not necessary to describe it.
One of the most simple figures among the Iro¬
quois, was called the Trotting dance, Gd-dd' -sliote.
It was usually the opening dance at councils, and at
private entertainments, when no costume figures
[Book II.
were introduced. A person appointed to act as
leader, followed by a few others, took the floor and
began. Others joined in as the column passed
around the room.
The music was entirely vocal, and furnished by
those who danced. It consisted of about twenty
different songs, each lasting something less than
two minutes. In this dance the tune was the mere
repetition of one exclamation by those at the head of
the column, followed by a response, in chorus, from
the residue. Three specimens are given in illustra¬
tion. The leader, in concert with those nearest
him, sang the following syllables : YarhaJwe-yorhd’^
to which all the others responded, Hd-Tid’. This
would be repeated and responded to, for about two
minutes, the pronunciation of the syllables being
subjected to a musical variation each time. When
the tune ended, the band walked for about the
same length of time. The next song might consist
of the syllables Gd-no’ -6h~Tie-yo\ with the response
Wdrhd'-aTi-lie-yo'. This would be continued, and
the key varied, in the same manner as the last.
After this was ended, and the dancers had refresh¬
ed themselves by walking, perhaps the next song
would consist of the following syllables: Yu-wd'-
narhe-yo\ and the response Wd-hd'-aJi-ha' .
As to the step it was very simple, being nearly a
trot, or alternate step on each foot. In dancing,
those engaged stood close to each other, and ad¬
vanced slowly around the council-house. The wo¬
men participated, but they were by themselves at
Ch. IV.]
the foot of the column. As this dance was ex¬
tremely simple, it was not uncommon to see two
and even three hundred engaged in it at one time,
moving around in three or four concentric lines.
Another figure, in very general use, was called
the Fish dance, Goreo-wa-o-no. It was of foreign
origin. The music consisted of singing, accom¬
panied with the drum, and the squash-shell rattle ;
the two singers seating themselves in the centre of
the room facing each other, and using the drum
and rattle to mark time, and increase the volume of
the music. The step was merely an elevation from
heel to toe, twice repeated upon each foot alter¬
nately ; bringing down the heel each alternate time
with considerable force, to mark time and make the
floor resound.
The dance was commenced by the leader, who
took the floor, followed by others, and walked to
the beat of the drum. When the song commenced,
each alternate dancer faced round, thus bringing
the column into sets of two each, face to face, those
who turned dancing backwards, but the whole band
moving around the room, as in other cases. Each
song, or tune lasted about three minutes. At the
end of the first minute there was a break in the
music, and the sets tmmed, thus reversing their po¬
sitions ; at the end of the second there was another
change in the music, in the midst of which the sets
turned again, which brought them back to their
original positions. Through the third and last sub¬
division of the time, the dance was continued with
[Book II.
increased animation. At tlie close of it, those ^rho
had been dancing backwards faced around, and the
whole column walked about two minutes, to the
beat of the drum. Another tune was then com¬
menced and finished in the same manner.
The peculiarity of this dance was the opportu¬
nity which it afforded the Indian maiden to select
whoever she preferred as a partner. In this partic¬
ular the custom of refined communities was revers¬
ed. The warrior never solicited the maiden to
dance with him ; that privilege was accorded to her
alone. In the midst of the dance, the females pre¬
sent themselves in pairs between any set they may
select, thus giving to each a partner. This rule pre¬
vails in all Indian dances ; so that the Indian maiden
at her own convenience “gracefully presents her
personage to the one she designs to favor, and thus
quietly engages herself in the dance.” In none of
the changes of position in this dance do the part¬
ners join hands. This figure usually continues less
than an hour. Sometimes, as a mark of respect to
a guest, or distinguished chief, two women present¬
ed themselves before him, as partners in the dance.
The Passing dance, Gorno'-ga-yo^ w^as also in
high favor. It is similar to the last, the column be¬
ing divided into sets of two each, the women en¬
gaging in whichever set they please. At a certain
stage of the song, the woman passed her partner,
and took the next, her place being supplied from
behind. They danced around the room, facing each
other in pairs, the men moving backwards. The
DAIfCE FOR THE DEAD.
Ch. IV.]
music and tlie step were about tbe same as in the
dance last described.
An occasional and very singular figure was called
the Dance for the Dead. It was known as the 0-h^-
wd. It was danced by the women alone. The
music was entirely vocal, a select band of singers
being stationed in the centre of the room. To the
songs for the dead, which they sang, the dancers
joined in chorus. It was plaintive and mournful
music. This dance was usually separate from all
councils, and the only dance of the occasion. It
commenced at dusk, or soon after, and continued
until towards morning, when the shades of the
dead, who were believed to be present and partici¬
pate in the dance, were supposed to disappear.
This dance was had whenever a family, which
had lost a member, called for it, which was usually
about a year after the event. In the spring and
fall, it was often given for all the dead indiscrimi¬
nately, who were believed then to revisit the earth
and join in the dance.
One of their performances was called the Buffalo
dance, Da-ge -yd-go-o-an' -no. It was designed for
males alone. The music consisted of singing, ac¬
companied with the drum and the rattle. Its
principal feature was the attempt to imitate the ac¬
tions of the buffalo. According to tradition, this
dance originated in a warlike expedition of the Iro¬
quois against the Cherokees. When they had pro¬
ceeded as far as the Kentucky salt lick, they heard,
for the first time, the buffaloes, “ singing their favor-
[Book II
ite songs,” (bellowing and grumbling.) From tbls
bellowing tbe music, and from tbeir actions tbe
plan of tbe dance, were made.
gus-da'-wa-sa, or squash-shell rattles.
In connection witb tbe dances of tbe Iroquois,
may be mentioned tbeu* concerts, wbicb occupy a
conspicuous place in tbeir amusements. But one
will be noticed of tbe four, wbicb make up tbe
number of kinds. It was called tbe 0-ee-dose\ It was
given in tbe nigbt, in a dark room, and no women
were allowed to be present. Those engaged in tbe
concert were seated on benches around tbe room, in
a continuous row, each one bolding in bis band a
rattle, of tbe kind represented in tbe figure. These
rattles were made to give each one a different note,
by means of different-sized shells, and boles bored
in them to emit tbe sound. Among twenty of them,
mttled together at such a concert, no two would
give tbe same sound. Corn was placed iuside the
shell. When tbe parties were ready, one of tbeir
number sang a song, to wbicb they all beat time
with tbeir rattles, and at certain intervals, all joined
in tbe song in chorus. Another then commenced a
Ch. IV.]
song, whidi was continued and finished in the same
manner. After each one in ton had sung his song,
which, with the accompaniments and the choruses,
made a not unpleasant entertainment, the concert
was ended.^
The other three ai’e the Medicine concert, Gd-no-
dd--yo-mli', the Female concert, O-e-un'-do-td ' and
the Thanksgiving concert, AJi-do’-weli^ before de¬
scribed.
It will not be necessary to describe the remaining
dances. Sufficient, at least, has been presented, to
give a general idea of the Dance among the Iroquois.
A few of them have been given in detail, as they
seemed calculated to furnish a glimpse of Indian
society. These amusements of our primitive inhab¬
itants are not, in themselves, devoid of interest, al¬
though they indicate a tendency of mind unbefitting
rational men. A hunter by nature and by inclina¬
tion, averse to cities, and impatient of labor, the
chase, the wai’-path, and the council-fire, with the
dance, furnished the three great employments of his
life. Who shall tell how much the hopes, the friend¬
ships, the happiness, and even the virtues of the
* The Indian appears to have had fractions of intervals. The tunes of
a good perception of time, and to the Iroquois, if the name may be given
have measured it, in his music and to their rude minstrelsy, were both nu-
dances, with considerable exactness ; merous and varied, and capable, also,
but in time he was sadly deficient of inspiring enthusiasm or sadness.
He knew nothing of the natural in- In their occasional songs, as in the
tervals of tones and semi-tones. There Ah-do'-weh, the music, as well as the
runs always through his mvaic one words, was often impromptu. The
predominant and constantly recurring Indian voice, especially that of the
sound, from which the others vary by female, is musical, and highly capable
all kinds of irregular intervals and of cultivation.
[Book IL
Indian, were bound up in indissoluble connection
with the Dance. With it the Iroquois kindled the
flame of patriotism which glowed in his breast,
while vindicating the prowess of his race upon the
hiUs of I^’ew England, on the prairies of the Missis¬
sippi, or in the trackless forests of the South. With
it he celebrated his victories, and in the days of
peace cultivated his social affections. And with it,
also, at stated seasons of the year, he offered up his
praise and homage to the Great Spirit, the ever
present Author of his being.^
1 0-sto-weh’-go-wa,:|;
2 Ga-na'-o-uli4
3 Da-yun'-da-nes-hunt-ha,
4 Ga-da'-ahote,*
6 O-to-wa'-ga-ka,* f
6 Je-ha'-ya,
7 Ga'-no-jit'-ga-o,
8 Ga-so-wa'-o-no,*
9 Cte-ko-da'-ta,
10 Ga-JBo'-ga-yo,:}:
11 So-wek-o^'-no,*
12 Ja ko'-wa-o-an'-no,
13 Guk-sa'-gAne-a,f
14 Ga-so'-a,f
15 O-ke'-wa,
16 O-as-ka-ne'-a,
11 Da-fiwa-da-ne'-a,
18 6a-ne-a'-seh-o,f
19 Un'da-da-o-at'-ha,-|-
20 Un-to-we'-sus,
21 Da-yo-da'-sun-da-e'-go,
22 Warsa'-seb,* X
23 Da-ge'-ya-go-o-an'-no,
24 Ne-a'-gwi-o-an'-no,*
25 Wa-a-no'-a,f
26 Ife-ho-sa-den'-da,f
27 Ga-na-an'-da-do,f J
28 Un-de-a-ne-8iik'-ta,f X
29 Eh-nes' -ben-do, f
30 Ga-go'-sa,
31 Ga-je'-sa,
32 Un-da-de-a-dus'-sbua-ae-at.'-hajf
Great Feather Dance. For both sexes.
Great Thanksgiving Dance. “
Dance with Joined Hands. “
Trotting Dance.
North Dance. "
Antique Dance. “
Taking the Kettle out. “
Fish Dance. “
Shaking the Bush. “
Rattle Dance. “
Duck Dance. “
Pigeon Dance. "
Grinding Dishes. “
Knee Rattle Dance. “
Dance for the Dead. For Females.
Shuffle Dance. “
Tumbling Dance. “
Turtle Dance. “
Initiation Dance for Girls. “
Shuffle Dance. “
Dark Dance. “
Sioux, or War Dance. For Males.
Buffalo Dance. “
Bear Dance. “
Striking the Stick. “
Squat Dance. “
Scalp Dance. “
Track Finding Dance. “
Arm Shaking Dance. “
False Face Dance. “
Preparation Dance. “
Those marked thus * are of foreign origin ; thus f , are now obsolete ;
and thus X> arfi costume dances.
Book II, Chapter V
National Games. — Betting. — Ball Game. — Game of Javelins.
— Game of Deer Buttons. — Snow Snake Game. — Archery. —
Peach Stone Game. — Enthusiasm for Games.
In their national garnes is to be found another
fruitful source of amusement in Indian life. These
games were not only played at their religious fes¬
tivals, at which they often formed a conspicuous
part of the entertainment, but special days were
frequently set apart for their celebration. They
entered into these diversions with the highest zeal
and emulation, and took unwearied pains to perfect
themselves in the art of playing each successfully.
There were but six principal games among the Iro¬
quois, and these are divisible into athletic games,
and games of chance.
Challenges were often sent from one village to
another, and were even exchanged between nations,
to a contest of some of these games. In such cases
the chosen players of each community or nation
were called out to contend for the prize of victory.
An intense degree of excitement was aroused, when
the champions were the most skilful players of
rival villages, or adjacent nations.^ The people en-
* Tradition relates that the war Eries, about the year 1653, from the
which ended in the expulsion of the western part of New York, originated
292 SPIRIT OF THE LEAGUE. [Book IL
listed upon their respective sides, with a degree of
enthusiasm, which would have done credit, both to
the spectators and the contestants, at the far-famed
Elian games. For miles, and even hundreds of miles,
they flocked together at the time appointed to wit¬
ness the contest.
Unlike the prizes of the Olympic games, no
chaplets awaited the victors. They were strifes be¬
tween nation and nation, village and village, or
tribes and tribes ; in a word parties against parties,
and not champion against champion. The prize
contended for was that of victory ; and it belonged,
not to the triumphant players, but to the party
which sent them forth to the contest.
When these games were not played by one com¬
munity against another, upon a formal challenge,
the people arranged themselves on two sides, ac¬
cording to their tribal divisions. By an organic
provision of the Iroquois, as elsewhere stated, the
Wolf, Bear, Beaver and Turtle tribes were brothers
to each other, as tribes, and cousins to the other
four. In playing their games they always went
together, and formed one party or side. In the
same manner the Deer, Snipe, Heron and Hawk
tribes were brothers to each other, as tribes, and
cousins to the four first named. These formed a
second, or opposite party. Thus in all Indian games,
with the exceptions first mentioned, the people di¬
vided themselves into two sections, four of the
in a breach of faith or treachery on to •w-hich they had challenged the
the part of die Eriea, in a Ball game Senecas.
Ca. V.]
tribes always contending against tbe other four.
Father and son, husband and wife, were thus arrayed
in opposite ranks.
Betting upon the result was common among the
Iroquois. As this practice was never reprobated by
their religious teachers, but, on the contrary, rather
encouraged, it frequently led to the most reckless
indulgence. It often happened that the Indian
gambled away every valuable article which he pos¬
sessed ; his tomahawk, his medal, his ornaments, and
even his blanket. The excitement and eagerness
with which he watched the shifting tide of the
game, was more uncontrollable than the delirious
agitation of the pale-face at the race-course, or
even at the gaming-table. Their excitable temper¬
ament and emulous spirits peculiarly adapted them
for the enjoyment of their national games.
These bets were made in a systematic manner,
and the aticles then deposited with the managers of
the game. A bet offered by a person upon one side,
in the nature of some valuable article, was matched
by a similar article, or one of equal value, by some
one upon the other. Personal ornaments made the
usual gaming currency. Other bets were offered
and taken in the same manner, until hundreds of
articles were sometimes collected. These were laid
aside by the managers, until the game was decided,
when each article lost by the event was handed
over to the winning individual, together with his
own, which he had risked against it.
[Book II-
GA'-NE-Aj OR BALL BAT, 5 FEET
With the Iroquois, the Ball game, O-fordorjisli-
quordge^ was the favorite among their amusements
of this description. This game reaches hack to a
remote antiquity, was universal among the red
races, and was played with a degree of zeal and en¬
thusiasm which would scarcely he credited. It was
played with a small deer-skin hall, hy a select hand,
usually from six to eight on a side, each set repre¬
senting its own party. The game was divided into
several contests, in which each set of players strove
to carry the hall through their own gate. They
went out into an open plain or field, and erected gates,
about eighty rods apart, on its opposite sides. Each
gate was simply two poles, some ten feet high, set in
the ground about three rods asunder. One of these
gates belonged to each party : and the contest be¬
tween the players was, which set would first carry
Ch. V.]
tlie ball tbrougb its own a given number of times.
Either five or seven made the game, as the parties
agreed. K five, for example, was the number, the
party wbich first carried, or drove the ball through
its own gate this number of times, won the victory.
Thus, after eight separate contests, the parties might
stand equal, each having won four ; in which case
the party which succeeded on the ninth contest
would carry the game. The players commenced in
the centre of the field, midway between the gates.
If one of them became fatigued or disabled during
the progress of the game, he was allowed to leave
the ranks, and his party could supply his place with
a fresh player, but the original number were not at
any time allowed to be increased. Regular man¬
agers were appointed on each side to see that the
rules of the game were strictly and fairly observed.
One rule forbade the players to touch the ball with
the hand or foot.
In preparing for this game, the players denuded
themselves entirely, with the exception of the waist-
cloth,^ (see plate, page 295.) They also underwent,
frequently, a course of diet and training, as in a
preparation for a foot-race.
When the day designated had arrived, the people
gathered from the whole surrounding country, to
witness the contest. About meridian they assem-
^ The Ga'-Jca, or waist-cloth, was between the limbs, and secured by a
a strip of deer-skin or broadcloth, deer-skin belt, passing around the
about a quarter wide and two yards waist, the embroidered ends falling
long, ornamented at the ends with over the belt, before and behind, in
bead or quill-work. It was passed the fashion of an apron.
[Book II.
"bled at the appointed place, and having separated
themselves into two companies, one might be seen
upon each side oftheline, between the gates, arranged
in scattered groups, awaiting the commencement of
the game. The players, when ready, stationed
themselves in two parallel rows, facing each other,
midway on this line, each one holding a ball bat,
of the kind represented in the figure, and with which
alone the ball was to be driven. As soon as all the
preliminaries were adjusted, the ball was dropped
between the two files of players, and taken between
the bats of the two who stood in the middle of each
file, opposite to each other. After a brief struggle
between them, in which each player endeavored,
with his bat, to get possession of the ball, and give
it the first impulse towards his own gate, it was
thrown out, and then commenced the pursuit. The
flying ball, when overtaken, was immediately sur¬
rounded by a group of players, each one striving to
extricate it, and, at the same time, direct it towards
his party gate. In this way the ball was frequently
imprisoned in different parts of the field, and an
animated controversy maintained for its possession.
When freed, it was knocked upon the ground, or
through the air ; but the moment a chance presented,
it was taken up upon the deer-skin network of the
ball bat, by a player in fuU career, and carried in a
race towards the gate. To guard against this con¬
tingency, by which one contest of the game might
be determined in a moment, some of the players
detached themselves from the group contending
Ch. V.]
around the 'ball, and took a position from wkicli to
intercept a runner upon a diagonal line, if it should
chance that one of the adverse party got possession
of the hall. These races often formed the most ex¬
citing part of the game, hoth from the fleetness of
the runners, and the consequences which depended
upon the result. When the line of the runner was
crossed, by an adversary coming in before him upon
a diagonal line, and he found it impossible, by arti¬
fice or stratagem, to elude him, he turned about,
and threw the ball over the heads of both of them,
towards his gate ; or, perchance, towards a player
of his own party, if there were adverse players be¬
tween him and the gate. When the flight of the
ball was arrested in any part of the field, a spirited
and even fierce contest was maintained around it ;
the players handled their bats with such dexterity,
and managed their persons with such art and adroit¬
ness, that frequently several minutes elapsed before
the ball flew out. Occasionally in the heat of the
controversy, but entirely by accident, a player was
struck with such violence, that the blood trickled
down his limbs. In such a case, if disabled, he
dropped his bat and left the field, while a fresh
player from his own party supplied his place. In
this manner was the game contested: oftentimes
with so much ardor and skill, that the baU was re¬
covered by one party at the very edge of the ad¬
verse gate; and finally, after many shifts in the
tide of success, carried in triumph through its own.
When one contest in the game was thus decided,
13#
[Book IL
the prevailing party sent np a united shout of re¬
joicing.
After a short respite for the refreshment of the
players, the second trial was commenced, and con¬
tinued like the first. Sometimes it was decided in
a few moments, but more frequently it lasted an
hour, and sometimes much longer, to such a system
had the playing of this game been reduced by skill
and practice. If every trial was ardently contested,
and the parties continued nearly equal in the num¬
ber decided, it often lengthened out the game, until
the approaching twilight made it necessary to take
another day for its conclusion.
On the final decision of the game, the exclama¬
tions of triumph, as would be expected, knew no
bounds. Caps, tomahawks and blankets were
thrown up into the air, and for a few moments the
notes of victory resounded from every side. It was
doubtless a considerate pro\dsion, that the prevailing
party were upon a side of the field opposite to, and
at a distance from, the vanquished, otherwise such
a din of exultation might have proved too exciting
for Indian patience.
In ancient times they used a solid ball of knot.
The ball bat, also, was made without network, hav¬
ing a solid and curving head. At a subsequent day,
they substituted the deer-skin ball and the network
ball bat in present use. These substitutions were
made so many years ago, that they have lost the
date.
The game of Javelins, Gd-na'-gorO^ was very sim-
Ch. V.]
pie, depending upon tlie dexterity witli whicli the
javelin was thrown at a ring; as it rolled upon the
ground. They frequently made it a considerable
game, by enlisting skilful players to prepare for the
contest, and by betting upon the result. The peo¬
ple divided by tribes, the four brothers playing
against their four cousin tribes, as in the last case,
unless the game was played on a challenge between
neighboring communities.
The javelin was five or six feet in length, by
three fourths of an inch in diameter, and was usually
made of hickory or maple. It was finished with
care, sharpened at one end, and striped as shown in
the figure. The ring was about eight inches in di¬
ameter, made either into a hoop or solid like a wheel,
by winding with splints. Sometimes the, javelin
was thrown horizontally, by placing the forefinger
against its foot, and supporting it with the thumb
and second finger ; in other cases it was held in the
centre, and thrown with the hand raised above the
shoulder.
On either side, from fifteen to thirty players were
arranged, each having from three to six javelins, the
number of both depending upon the interest in the
[Book II
game, and tlie time tliey wislied to devote to the
contest. The javelins themselves were the forfeit,
and the game was gained by the party which won
them.
Among the preliminaries to be settled by the
managers, was the line on which the ring was to be
rolled, the distance of the two bands of players
from each other, and the space between each and
the line itself. When these points were adjusted,
and the parties stationed, the ring was rolled by one
pai’ty on the line, in front of the other. As it
passed the javelins were thrown. If the ring was
struck by one of them, the players of the advei’se
party were required, each in turn, to stand in the
place of the pereon who struck it, and throw their
javelins in succession at the ring, which was set uj)
as a target, on the spot where it was hit. Those of
the javelins which hit the target when thus thrown
were saved ; if any missed they were passed to the
other party, and by them were again thrown at the
ring from the same point. Those which hit were
won, finally, and laid out of the play, while the
residue^ were restored to their original owners.
After this first contest was decided, the ring was
rolled back, and the other party, in turn, threw
their javelins. K it was struck, the party which
rolled it was requii’ed, in the same manner, to hazard
their javelins, by throwing them at the target.
Such as missed were delivered to the other party,
and those which hit the target when thrown by
them, were won also, and laid out of the play. In
Ch. V.]
tKis manner tlie game was continued, until one of
tlie parties had lost their javelins, which, of itself,
determined the contest.
There was another game of javelins, Ga-gorda-yan!-
duk^ played by shooting them through the air. In
this game, the javelin used was made of sumac, be¬
cause of its lightness, and was of the same length
and size as in the former. This game was divided
into contests, as the Ball game, and was won by the
party which first made the number agreed upon.
The game was usually from fifteen to twenty, and
the number of players on a side ranged from five to
ten. When the parties were ready, the one which
had the first throw selected the object upon w^hich
the javelin was to be thrown, to give it an upward
flight, and also its distance from the standing point.
If, for example, it was a log, at the distance of a
rod, the player placed his forefinger against the
foot of the javelin, and, supporting it with his thumb
and second finger, he threw it in such a manner, that
it would strike the upper side of the log, and thus
be thrown up into the air, and forward, until its
force was spent. In this manner all the players, in
turn, threw their javelins. The one which was
thrown the greatest distance won a point. If an¬
other, upon the same side, was in advance of all
upon the opposite side, it counted another, and so
on for every one which led all those upon the op¬
posite side. In the next contest, the second party
chose the object over which to throw the javelin,
and the distance. The game was thus continued.
[Book IL
until the number of points were gained which were
agreed upon for the game.
gus-ga-e-sa'-ta, or deer-buttons.
This was strictly a fireside game, although it was
sometimes introduced as an amusement at the sea¬
son of religious councils, the people dividing into
tribes, as usual, and betting upon the result. Eight
buttons, about an inch in diameter, were made of
elk-horn, and having been rounded and polished,
were slightly burned upon one side to blacken
them. When it was made a public game, it was
played by two at a time, with a change of players,
as elsewhere described in the Peach-stone game. At
the fireside, it was played by two or more, and all
the players continued in their seats until it was de¬
termined. A certain number of beans, fifty per¬
haps, were made the capital, and the game contin¬
ued until one of the players had won them all.
Two persons spread a blanket, and seated them¬
selves upon it. One of them shook the deer-but¬
tons in his hands, and then threw them down. If
Ch. V.]
six turned up of the same color, it counted two, if
seven, it counted four, and if all, it counted twenty,
the winner taking as many beans from the general
stock, as he made points by the throw. He also
continued to throw as long as he continued to win.
When less than six came up, either black or white,
it counted nothing, and the throw was passed to
the other player. In this manner the game was
continued until the beans were taken up between
the two players. After that the one paid to the
other out of his own winnings, the game ending as
soon as the capital in the hands of either player
was exhausted. If four played, each had a partner,
or played independently, as they were disposed ;*
but when more than two played, each one was
to pay to the winner the amount won. Thus, if
four were playing independently, and after the
beans were distributed among them, in the progress
of the game, one of them should turn the buttons
up all black, or all white, the other three would be
obliged to pay him twenty each ; but if the beans
were still in bank, he took up but twenty. The
deer-buttons were of the same size. In the figure
they are represented at different angles.
Among the amusements of the winter season, in
Indian life, was the game with Snow-snakes. It
[Book II
was primarily designed as a diversion for tiie young ;
but it was occasionally made a public game between
the tribes like tbe other, and aroused a great degree
of spirit, and the usual amount of betting. The
snake was thi’own with the hand by placing the fore¬
finger against its foot, and supporting it with the
thumb and remaining fingers. It was thus made to
run upon the snow crust with the speed of an ar¬
row, and to a much greater distance, sometimes
running sixty or eighty rods. The success of the
player depended upon his dexterity and muscular
strength.
The snakes were made of hickory, and with the
most perfect precision and finish. They were from
five to seven feet in length, about a fourth of an
inch in thickness, and gradually diminishing from
about an inch in width at the head, to about half
an inch at the foot. The head was round, turned
up slightly, and pointed with lead to increase the
momentum of the snake.
This game, like that of ball, was divided into a
number of separate contests ; and was determined
when either party had gained the number of points
agreed upon, which was generally from seven to
ten. The players were limited and select, usu¬
ally not more than six. A station was determined
upon, vith the line, or general direction in which
the snake was to be thrown. After they had all
been thrown by the players on both sides, the next
question was to determine the count. The snake
which ran the gi’eatest distance was a point for the
Ch. Y.]
side to whidi it belonged. Otter points might he
won on the same side, if a second or third snake
was found to he ahead of all the snakes upon the
adverse side. One count was made for each snake
which outstripped all upon the adverse side. These
contests were repeated until one of the parties had
made the requisite number of points to determine
the game.
ga'-no, or arrow.
In archery the Indian has scarcely been excelled.
With a quick eye and a powerful muscle, he could
send the arrow as unerringly as the archers of Robin
Hood. It cannot be called, in strictness, a game,
but trials of skill were common in ancient times ;
successful archery raising the individual into high
repute.
The Indian bow was usually from three and a
half to four feet in length, with such a difScult
[Book II.
spring, that an inexperienced person conld scarcely
hend it sufficiently to set the string. To draw the
string back, when set, an arm’s length, could only be
done by practice, superadded to the most powerful
muscular strength. An arrow thus sent would
strike its object with fearful velocity. The arrow
was about three feet in length, and feathered at the
small end with a twist, to make it revolve in its
flight. It gave to its motion horizontality and pre¬
cision, doubtless suggesting, at a later day, the idea
of the twist in the rifle barrel, by which the ball is
made to revolve in the same manner. The English
and Scottish archers feathered their arrows, but
without this peculiarity. Three feathers were also
used by them, which were set parallel with the ar¬
row, and with each other. But they were set upon
one side of the arrow at its three quarters, and in
such a way that the three parallel feathers formed
obtuse angles with each other. The Indian used
but two feathers, which passed around the opposite
sides of the arrow in a twist, as shown in the figure
For this purpose, the feather was stripped off from
the quill and tied to the arrow with sinew. Origi¬
nally, the Indian arrow was pointed with a flint or
chert-head, which would enable it to penetrate deeply
any object at which it was directed. With such an
arrow, it was an easy matter to bring down the
deer, the wild fowl, or the warrior himself. Skele¬
tons have been disentombed, having the skull pene¬
trated with an arrow-head of this description, with
the flint-head itself still in the fracture, or entirely
Ch. V.]
30Y
within the skull. In Oregon and on the upper Mis¬
sissippi, the Indian arrow is still pointed with flint.
Thus it was with the Iroquois, until the bow was
laid aside for the rifle. Arrow-heads of this de¬
scription are still found scattered over the whole
surface of the State. With Indian youth, the bow
and the arrow is still a favorite source of amuse¬
ment.
Foot-races furnished another pastime for the Iro¬
quois. They were often made a part of the enter¬
tainment with which civil and mourning councils
were concluded. In this athletic game the Indian
excelled. The exigencies, both of war and peace,
rendered it necessary for the Iroquois to have
among them practiced and trained runners. A
spirit of emulation often sprang up among them,
which resulted in regular contests for the palm of
victory. In these races^the four tribes put forward
their best runners against those of the other four,
and left the question of superiority to be deter¬
mined by the event of the contest. Before the
time appointed for the races, they prepared them¬
selves for the occasion by a process of training. It
is not necessary to describe them. They dressed
in the same manner for the race as for the game of
ball. Leaping, wrestling and the other gymnastic
exercises appear to have furnished no part of the
public amusements of our primitive inhabitants.
An ancient and favorite game of the Iroquois,
Gus-lcd'-eh^ was played with a bowl and peach-stones.
It was always a betting game, in which the people
day of the Green Com and the Harvest festivals,
and also of the New Year’s jubilee. Its introduc¬
tion among them is ascribed to the firet To-do-da' -ho.,
who flourished at the formation of the League. A
popular belief prevailed, that this game would be
enjoyed by them in the future life, in the realm of
the Great Spirit ; which is, perhaps, but an extrava¬
gant way of expressing their admiration for the
game.
Ch. V.]
A dish, about a foot in diameter at the base, was
carved out of a knot, or made of earthen. Six
peach-stones were then ground, or cut down into an
oval form, reducing them in the process about half
in size, after which the heart of the pit was removed,
and the stones themselves were burned upon one
side, to blacken them. The above representation
will exhibit both the bowl and the peach-stones ;
the latter being drawn in different positions to show
the degree of their convexity.
It was a very simple game, depending, in part,
upon the dexterity of the player, but more upon
his good fortune. The peach-stones were shaken
in the bowl by the player, the count depending
upon the number which came up of one color, after
they had ceased rolling in the dish. It was played
in the public council-house by a succession of players,
two at a time, under the supervision of managers
appointed to represent the two parties, and to con¬
duct the contest. Its length depended somewhat
upon the number of beans which made the bank,
usually one hundred, the victory being gained by
the side which finally won them all.
A platform was erected a few feet from the floor
and spread with blankets. When the betting was
ended, and the articles had been delivered into the
custody of the managers, they seated themselves
upon the platform in the midst of the throng of
spectators, and two persons sat down to the game
between the two divisions into which they arranged
themselves. The beans, in the first instance, were
[Book IL
placed together in a bank. Five of tbeni were
given to each player, with which they commenced.
Each player, by the rules of the game, was allowed
to keep his seat until he had lost this outfit, after
which he surrendered it to another player on his
own side selected by the managers of his own party.
And this was the case, notwithstanding any number
he might have won of his adversary. Those which
he won were delivered to his party managers. The
six peach-stones were placed in the bowl and shaken
by the player ; if five of them came up of one color,
either white or black, it counted one, and his adver¬
sary paid to him the forfeit, which was one bean ; the
bean .simply representing a unit in counting the
game. On the next throw, which the player having
won, retained, if less than nve came up of the same
color, it counted nothing, and he passed the bowl to
his adversary. The second player then shook the
bowl ; upon which, if they all came up of one color,
either white or black, it counted five. To pay this
forfeit requii’ed the whole outfit of the first player,
after which, having nothing to pay with, he vacated
his seat, and was succeeded by another of his own
side, who received from the bank the same number
of beans which the first had. The other player fol¬
lowed his throw as long as he continued to win ;
after which he repassed the bowl to his adversary.
If a player chanced to win five, and his opponent
had but one left, this was all he could gain. In this
manner the game continued, with varying fortune,
until the beans were divided between the two sides
Ch. V.]
in proportion to their success. After this the game
continued in the same manner as before, the outfit
of each new player being advanced by the mana¬
gers of his own party ; but as the beans or counters
were now out of sight, none but the managers knew
the state of the game with accuracy. In playing it
there were but two winning throws, one of which
counted one and the other five. When one of the
parties had lost all their beans, the game was done.
There were some other peculiarities and varia¬
tions in this game which would be necessary to a
full understanding of it, but sufificient has been
given to illustrate its general character. As they
began to play this game about meridian, it often
happened that it was necessary to take another day
for its conclusion. It was made a long game by its
constitution, as it was carefully guarded against the
extreme fickleness of most games of chance. It so
happens that games of this description do not de¬
pend for their interest upon the striking combina¬
tions involved in their construction. This is de¬
pendent very much upon practice, habit and asso¬
ciation. Oftentimes the most simple game in its
contrivance, is the most attractive and absorbing to
the practiced player. This game, as simple as it may
appear, was productive of a great degree of excite¬
ment, and when finally decided, the exultation of
the victors broke forth in vehement rejoicings.
Ha-ving intently watched, for hours, the ever-chang¬
ing tide of the game, when the long suspense was
over, and the tension of the mind was ended, its re-
[Book II
bound, under tbe impulse of victory, exhibited it¬
self in extravagant exclamations.
A brief description of the plan of these games
will no more exhibit their hidden sources of enter¬
tainment, than a volume descriptive of chess would
reveal the fascinations of the game itself. These
games all depend, for their interest, upon circum¬
stances. The Olympic, Pythian and other games
of the Greeks, and the Apolhnarian, Circensian
and other games of the Romans, consisted chiefly,
as is well known, of running, leaping, wrestling,
riding and chariot-racing. Aside from the last,
they were not, intrinsically, much superior to the
games of the Iroquois. But in the hands of the
Greeks, especially, they were made the most extra¬
ordinary entertainments of the ancient world.
Among the Iroquois, in the celebration of their na¬
tional games, as far as they went, is to be found the
same species of enthusiasm and emulation which
characterized the celebration of the games of an¬
tiquity. Although the national games, like the
popular songs of one people, may be incapable of
exciting the enthusiasm or awakening the patriotic
spirit of another ; yet they are not, for this reason,
devoid of interest. If it be asked what interest for
us can attach to these games of the Iroquois, one
answer at least may be given ; — they show that the
American wilderness, which we have been taught to
pronounce a savage solitude until the white man en¬
tered its borders, had long been vocal in its deepest
seclusions, with the gladness of happy human hearts.
Book II, Chapter VI
Indian Society. — Ancient Villages Stockaded. — Baek House. —
Marriage. — Passion of Love Unknown. — Divorce. — Rights of
Property. — Hospitality. — Criminal Code. — Faith of Trea¬
ties. — Use of Wampum. — Usages of War. — Captives not
Exchanged. — Adoption. — The Hunt. — Indian Life.
NoTwiTHSTAifuma tlie simplicity of Indian life,
and its barrenness of those higher social enjoyments
which pertain to refined communities, Indian society
was bound together by permanent institutions, gov¬
erned by fixed laws, and impelled and guided by
well-established usages and customs. The diversified
powers, motives and restraints embraced within
them, exercised an important influence upon their
social life, and therefore they present fruitful and
interesting subjects of investigation. To form a
judgment of the Indian character, which is founded
upon a knowledge of his motives and principles of
action, he must be seen in his social relations. But
it is not deemed advisable to consider these topics
minutely.
The Iroquois resided in permanent villages. Not
knowing the use of wells, they fixed their residences
upon the banks of rivers and lakes, or in the vicinity
of copious springs. About the period of the forma¬
tion of the League, when they were exposed to
[Book II.
tlie inroads of hostile nations, and the warfare of
migratory hands, their villages were compact and
stockaded. Having run a trench several feet deep,
around five or ten acres of land, and thrown up the
ground upon the inside, they set a continuous row
of stakes or palisades in this hank of earth, fixing
them at such an angle that they inclined over the
trench. Sometimes a village was surrounded hy a
double, or even triple row of palisades. Within
this enclosure they constructed their bark-houses,
and secured their stores, xkround it w^as the village
field, consisting, oftentimes, of several hundred acres
of cultivated land, which was subdivided into plant¬
ing lots ; those belonging to difterent families being
bounded by uncultivated ridges. Nun-da-wa'-o^ at
the head of Canandaigua lake, the oldest village of
the Senecas, was stockaded ; so also were Sha-hase'-
gd-o on the site of Lima, and two or three other
of their oldest towns.
But at the commencement of the seventeenth
century, which may be called the middle period of
the history of the Loquois, when their power had
become consolidated, and most of the adjacent na¬
tions had been brought under subjection, the neces¬
sity of stockading their villages in a measure
ceased, and with it the practice. At the period of
the discovery of the inland Iroquois, about the year
1640,^ few, if any, of the villages of the Senecas,
' The Franciscan Le Caron, passed But little, however, was known of
through the country of the Iroquois them prior to 1640.
in 1616, (Brancroft’s Hist U. S. 3. 120.)
Ch. VI]
AJJfCIENT VILLAGES STOCKADED.
Cayugas, or Onondagas were surrounded witli pali¬
sades ; but the Oneidas and Mohawks continued to
stockade their villages for many years afterwards,
in consequence of the inroads of the French. At
this period, also, their villages were compactly
built.
The modern village was a cluster of houses,
planted like the trees of the forest, at irregular in¬
tervals, and over a large area. No attempt was
made at a street, or at an arrangement of their
houses in a row; two houses seldom fronting the
same line. They were merely grouped together
sufficiently near for a neighborhood.
As their villages, at an early day, were reckoned
by the number of houses, it is important to remark
the difference between the Gorno'-sote^ or Bark-house
of the middle and the modern period, to arrive at
an estimate of the number of inhabitants. When
the village was scattered over a large area, the
houses were single, and usually designed for one
family ; but when compact, as in ancient times, they
were very long, and subdivided, so as to accommo¬
date a number of families. The long house was
generally from fifty to a hundred and thirty feet in
length, by about sixteen in width, with partitions at
intervals of about ten or twelve feet, or two lengths
of the body. Each apartment was, in fact, a sepa¬
rate house, having a fire in the centre, and accom¬
modating two families, one upon each side of the
fire. Thus a house one hundred and twenty feet
long, would contain ten fires and twenty families.
[Book IL
A ]\Ir. Greenlialgli, in 1677, visited tlie Seneca vil¬
lage of Da-yo-de-lioy 4o^ signifying “ a bended creek,”
situated upon a bend of the Honeoye outlet, west
of Mendon, in tbe county of Monroe. Under tbe
name of “ Tiotobatton,” lie thus speaks of it: —
“ Tiotobatton lies on tbe brink or edge of a hill ;
has not much cleared ground ; is near tbe river Ti¬
otobatton, which signifies bending. It lies to tbe
westward of Canagorab,” probably Nuiv-darwa'-o^
“ about thirty miles, containing about 120 bouses, be¬
ing tbe largest of all tbe bouses we saw, (tbe ordi¬
nary being from fifty to sixty feet long,) with from
twelve to thirteen fires in one bouse. They have
good store of corn, growing about a mUe to tbe
northward of the town.”^ Tbe Marquis De Non-
ville, in 1687, captured this, with three other vil¬
lages of tbe Senecas, at tbe time of bis invasion of
tbe Seneca territory. In tbe Acte^ executed at this
village, by which tbe French took formal possession
of the territories of tbe Seneca-Iroquois, on behalf
of France, it is written “Totiakton,” and is called
“ tbe largest of tbe Seneca villages.”® It is not im-
* Docmnentary Hist Xew Tork,
i 13. He further states that Cana-
gorah contained 150 houses; Onon¬
daga, 140; Oneida village, 100; ib.
12-13.
* Doe. Httt X. T., i. 242. The
three other vill^es taken by De Non-
ville were Gannagaro, as it is called in
the acte, or Ga-o-sa-ga'-o, signifying
“ in the Basswood country,” situated a
short distance south-east of Victor in
the county of Ontario, Gannondata
and Gannongarae, one of which was
doubtless Ga-nun-dd'-gwa, “ place se¬
lected for a settlement,” upon the
site of the present village of Canan¬
daigua. De Nonville estimated the
population of the four villages at
15,000, and the Indian corn destroyed
by his troops at 400,000 minots, (Doc.
Hist. i. 239.) Doubtless, both of these
estimates were exaggerations.
Ch. YL]
probable that tbe largest villages of tbe Iroquois
contained 3000 inhabitants.
Tbe Gd-no'-sote^ orBark-bouse, (see plate, page 3,)
was a simple structure. Wben single, it was about
twenty feet by fifteen upon tbe ground, and from
fifteen to twenty feet bigb. Tbe frame consisted of
upright poles firmly set in tbe ground, usually five
upon the sides, and four at tbe ends, including those
at tbe corners. Upon tbe forks of these poles,
about ten feet from tbe ground, cross-poles were se¬
cured horizontally, to which tbe rafters, also poles,
but more numerous and slender, were adjusted.
Tbe rafters were strengthened with transverse poles,
and tbe whole were usually so arranged as to form
an arching roof. After tbe frame was thus com¬
pleted, it was sided up, and shingled with red elm
or ash bark, tbe rough side out. Tbe bark was flat¬
tened and dried, and then cut in tbe form of boards.
To bold these bark boards firmly in their places,
another set of poles, corresponding with those in
tbe frame, were placed on tbe outside; and by
means of splints and bark rope fastenings, tbe
boards were secured horizontally between them.
It usually required four lengths of boards, and four
courses from tbe ground to tbe rafters to cover a
side, as they were lapped at tbe ends, as well as
clapboarded ; and also in tbe same proportion for
tbe ends. In like manner, tbe roof was covered
with bark boards, smaller in size, with tbe rough
side out, and tbe grain running up and down ; tbe
boards being stitched through and through with
[Book II.
fastenings, and tlins held between the frames of
poles, as on the sides. In the centre of the roof
was an opening for the smoke, the fire being upon
the ground in the centre of the bouse, and the
smoke ascending without the guidance of a chimney.
At the two ends of the house were doors, either of
bark hung upon hinges of wood, or of deer or bear¬
skins suspended before the opening ; and however
long the house, or whatever the number of fires,
these were the only entrances. Over one of these
dooi's was cut the tribal device of the head of the
family. Within, upon the two sides, were arranged
wide seate, also of bark boards, about two feet
from the ground, well supported underneath, and
reaching the entire length of the house. Upon
these they spread their mats of skins, and also their
blankets, using them as seats by day and couches
at night. Similar berths were constructed on each
side, about five feet above these, and secured to the
j&’ame of the house, thus furnishing accommodations
for the family. Upon cross-poles, near the roof,
was hung, in bunches, braided together by the
husks, their winter supply of corn. Charred and
dried corn, and beans were generally stored in bark
barrels, and laid away in corners. Their imple¬
ments for the chase, domestic utensils, weapons, ar¬
ticles of apparel, and miscellaneous notions,^ were
stowed away, and hung up, whenever an unoccupied
place was discovered. A house of this description
’ For some account of their fabrics, implements and u jensils, see Book iii
Ch. VI.]
MARRIAGE. ’
would accommodate a family of eight, with the lim¬
ited wants of th^ Indian, and afford shelter for their
necessary stores, making a not uncomfortable resi¬
dence. After they had learned the use of the axe,
they began to substitute houses of hewn logs, but
they constructed them after the ancient model.
Many of the houses of their modern villages in the
valley of the Genesee were of this description.
There was another species of house occasionally
constructed, either for temporary use or for a small
family. It was triangular at the base, the frame
consisting of three poles on a side, gathered at the
top, but with space sufficient between them for a
chimney opening. They were sided up in the same
manner as the I’ectangular Gorno'-sote. During the
hunt, bark-houses of this description were often
erected as a shelter.
The Iroquois were accustomed to bury their sur¬
plus corn, and also their charred green corn, in
caches, in which the former would preserve unin¬
jured through the year, and the latter for a much
longer period. They excavated a pit, made a bark
bottom and sides, and having deposited their corn
within it, a bark roof, water tight, was constructed
over it, and the whole covered up with earth. Pits
of charred corn are still found near their ancient
settlements. Cured venison and other meats were
buried in the same manner, except that the bark
repository was lined with deer-skins.
In this connection, the marriage customs of the
Iroquois naturally suggest themselves. They ex-
[Book II.
hibit novel, if not distinctive features. Marriage
was not founded upon the affecti(?ns, wMch consti¬
tute the only legitimate basis of this relation in
civilized society, but was regulated exclusively as a
matter of physical necessity. It was not even a
contract between the parties to be married, but sub¬
stantially between their mothers, acting oftentimes
under the suggestions of the matrons and wise-men
of the tribes to which the parties respectively be¬
longed. In a general sense, therefore, the subject
of marriage was under the supervision of the older
members of each tribe ; but practically, it was un¬
der maternal control. With the improvement and
elevation of the race, changes were gradually intro¬
duced in relation to the marriageable age, and the
disparity of age between the sexes. In ancient
times, the young warrior was always united to a
woman several years his senior, on the supposition
that he needed a companion experienced in the af¬
fairs of life. The period was also deferred on his
part until twenty-five, that he might first become
inured to the hardships of the war-path and of the
chase, before his freedom was curtailed and his re¬
sponsibilities were increased by the cares of a family,
light as these cares seem to have been under their
social system. Thus, it often happened that the
young warrior at twenty-five 'vvas married to a
woman of fprty, and oftentimes a widow ; while the
widower at sixty was joined to the maiden at twenty.
But these were their primitive customs ; the ages of
the parties afterwards drew nearer to an equality.
Ch. VI]
and the marriageable age was, in time, reduced to
twenty, and even’ below it.
When the mother considered her son of a suita¬
ble age for marriage, she looked about her for a
maiden, whom, from report, or acquaintance, she
judged would accord with him in disposition and
temperament. A negotiation between the mothers
ensued, and a conclusion was speedily reached.
Sometimes the near relatives and the elderly per¬
sons of the ‘tribes to which each belonged were
consulted ; but their opinions were of no avail, in¬
dependently of the wishes of the mothers them¬
selves. Not the least singular feature of the trans¬
action, was the entire ignorance in which the par¬
ties remained of the pending negotiation ; the first
intimation they received being the announcement
of their marriage, without, perhaps, ever having
known or seen each other. Remonstrance or objec¬
tion on their part was never attempted ; they re¬
ceived each other as the gift of their parents. As
obedience to them in all their requirements was in¬
culcated as a paramount duty, and disobedience was
followed by disownment, the operative force of cus¬
tom, in addition to these motives, was sufficient to
secure acquiescence. The Indian father never trou¬
bled himself concerning the marriage of his chil¬
dren. To interfere would have been an invasion of
female immunities ; and these, whatever they were,
were as sacredly regarded by him, as he was inflex¬
ible in enforcing respect for his own.
When the fact of marriage had been communica-
14*
[Book IL
ted to the parties, a simple ceremonial completed
the transaction. On the day following the an- .
nonncement, the maiden was conducted by her
mother, accompanied by a few female friends, to the
home of her intended husband. She carried in her
hand a few cakes of unleavened corn bread, which
she presented on entering the house, to her mother-
in-law, as an earnest of her usefulness and of her
skill in the domestic arts. After receiving it, the
mother of the jmung warrior returned a present of
venison, or other fruit of the chase, to the mother
of the bride, as an earnest of his ability to provide
for his household. This exchange of presents rati¬
fied and concluded the contract, which bound the
new pair together in the marriage relation. Thus
simple was the formation of the nuptial bond among
our primitive inhabitants.
From the very nature of the marriage institution
among the Iroquois, it follows that the passion of
love was entirely unknowm among them. AfPection
after marriage would naturally spring up between
the parties from association, from habit, and from
mutual dependence ; but of that marvellous passion
which originates in a higher development of the
powers of the human heart, and is founded upon a
cultivation of the affections between the sexes, they
were entirely ignorant. In their temperaments,
they were below this passion in its simplest forms.
Attachments between individuals, or the cultivation
of each other’s affections before marriage, was en¬
tirely unknown; so also were promises of mar-
Ch. VI.]
riage. The fact that individuals were united in this
relation, without their knowledge or consent, and
perhaps without even a previous acquaintance, illus¬
trates and confirms this position. This invasion of
the romances of the novelist, and of the conceits of
the poet, upon the attachments which sprang up in
the bosom of Indian society, may, perhaps, divest
the mind of some pleasing impressions ; but these
are entirely inconsistent with the marriage institu¬
tion as it existed among them, and with the facts of
their social history.
Intercourse between the sexes was restrained by
circumstances, and by inclination. Indian habits
and modes of life divided the people socially into
two great classes, male and female. The male
sought the conversation and society of the male,
and they went forth together for amusement, or for
the severer duties of life. In the same manner the
female sought the companionship of her own sex.
Between the sexes there was but little sociality, as
this term is understood in polished society. Such a
thing as formal visiting was entirely unknown.
When the unmarried of opposite sexes were casual¬
ly brought together, there was little or no conver¬
sation between them. No attempts by the unmar¬
ried to please or gratify each other by acts of per¬
sonal attention, were ever made. At the season of
councils and religious festivals, there was more of
actual intercourse and sociality, than at any other
time ; but this was confined to the dance, and was,
in itself, limited. A solution of this singular prob-
[Book IL
leni is, in part, to be found in tbe absence of equality
in tbe sexes. Tbe Indian regarded woman as tbe
inferior, tbe dependent, and tbe servant of man, and
fi’om nurture and babit, sbe actually considered ber-
self to be so. Tbis absence of equality in position,
in addition to tbe force of custom, fuimisbes a satis¬
factory explanation of many of tbe peculiarities
characteristic of Indian society. In tbe coltivation
of tbe affections between tbe sexes, and in tbe de¬
velopment of kindred sentiments, is to be found
tbe origin of tbe amenities and tbe mitigation of
tbe asperities of life.
In intimate connection with tbe subject of mar¬
riage, is tbat of divorce. Polygamy was forbidden
among tbe Iroquois, and never became a practice ;
but tbe right tn put away the wife, or of voluntary
separation, was allowed to all. Tbe mothers of the
married pair were responsible for their concord and
baimony. If differences arose between them, it be¬
came their duty to effect a reconciliation, and by
advice and counsel, to guard against a repetition of
tbe difficulty. But if disturbances continued to
follow reconcdiations, and their dispositions were
found to be too incongruous for domestic peace, a
separation followed, either by mutual consent or tbe
absolute refusal of one of the parties longer to rec¬
ognize the marriage relation. As such a rupture
in ancient times was regarded as discreditable to tbe
parties, and brought them under the pressure of
pubbc censure, they were then unfrequent. Li later
days, however, the inviolabDity of the nuptial con-
Ch. YI]
tract was less sacredly regarded, and the most friv¬
olous reasons, or the caprice of the moment, were
sufficient for breaking the marriage tie.
The husband and wife were never of the same
tribe, as has been elsewhere more fully explained ;
and the children were of the tribe of their mother.
No right in the father to the custody of their per¬
sons, or to their nurture, was recognized. As, after
separation, he gave himself no farther trouble con¬
cerning them, nor interested himself in their fu¬
ture welfare, they became estranged as well as sep¬
arated. Parental affection was much weaker, as is
usually the fact, on the part of the father than on
that of the mother. The Indian father seldom
caressed his children, or b}^ any outward acts mani¬
fested the least solicitude for their welfare; but
when his sons grew up to maturity, he became more
attached to them, making them his companions in
the hunt, and upon the war-path. The care of their
infancy and childhood was intrusted to the watchful
affection of the mother alone.
By the laws of the Iroquois, the nationality as
well as the tribe of the individual was never lost, or
merged in another. If a Cayuga woman mariied a
Seneca, her children were Cayugas, and her descend¬
ants in the female line, to the latest posterity, con¬
tinued to be Cayugas, although they resided with
the Senecas, and by intermarriage with them had
lost nearly every particle of Cayuga blood. In the
same manner, if a Mohawk married a Delaware wo¬
man, her children were not only Delawares, but
[Book II.
aliens, unless they were regularly adopted and chris¬
tened as Mohawks, and the fact of adoption was an¬
nounced in open council.
Property, both in amount and variety, was ex¬
ceedingly limited ; as would naturally be expected
among a people li\dng a hunter and semi-agricultu¬
ral life, and making a mere subsistence the limit of
their wants, and of their ambition. But inconsider¬
able as it was in the aggregate, it was held, and
subject to distribution, under fixed laws. Having
neither currency nor trade, nor the love of gain,
their property consisted merely of planting lots,
orchards, houses, implements of the chase, weapons,
articles of apparel, domestic utensils, personal orna¬
ments, stores of grain, skins of animals, and those
miscellaneous fabrics which the necessities of life
led them to invent. The rights of property, of both
husband and wife, were continued distinct during
the existence of the marriage relation; the wife
holding, and controlling her own, the same as her
husband, and in case of separation, taking it mth
her. No individual could obtain the absolute title
to land, as that was vested by the laws of the
Iroquois in all the people ; but he could reduce
unocccupied lands to cultivation, to any extent he
pleased ; and so long as he continued to use them,
his right to their enjoyment was protected and se¬
cured. He could also sell his improvements, or
bequeath them to his wife or children. If the wife,
either before or after marriage, inherited orchards,
or planting lots, or reduced land to cultivation, she
Cfl. VI.]
could dispose of them at her pleasure, and in case
of her death, they were inherited, together with
her other effects, by her children. The rule of de¬
scent, on the death of the father, was different. His
children, not being of his tribe, were out of the hue
of inheritance ; for by their laws, property could
not, by descent, pass out of the tribe. If he gave
his planting lots, or any articles of property to his
wife or children, in the presence of a witness, they
were allowed to hold them. But if he made no
disposition of his effects, they were handed over
upon his decease, to the near relatives in his own
tribe, who usually assigned to the family the house,
and such other articles as they deemed advisable,
and distributed the residue among themselves, as
personal mementos of the deceased.
One of the most attractive features of Indian so¬
ciety was the spirit of hospitality by which it was
pervaded. Perhaps no people ever carried this
principle to the same degree of universality, as did
the Iroquois. Their houses were not only open to
each other, at all hours of the day, and of the
night, but also to the wayfarer, and the stranger.
Such entertainment as their means afforded was
freely spread before him, with words of kindness
and of welcome. The Indian had no regular meal
after the morning repast, but he allayed his appetite
whenever the occasion offered. The care of the
appetite was left entirely with the women, as the
Indian never asked for food. Whenever the hus¬
band returned, at any hour of the day, it was the
[Book IL
duty and tlie custom of the wife to set food before
him. If a neighbor or a stranger entered her dwel¬
ling, a dish of hommony, or whatever else she had
prepared, was immediately placed before him, with
an invitation to partake. It made no difference at
what hour of the day, or how numerous the calls,
this courtesy was extended to every comer, and was
the first act of attention bestowed. This custom
was universal, in fact one of the laws of their social
system ; and a neglect on the part of the wife to
observe it, was regarded both as a breach of hospi¬
tality, and as a personal affront. A neighbor, or a
stranger, calling from house to house, through an
Indian village, would be thus entertained at every
dwelling he entered. If the appetite of the guest
had thus been fully satisfied, he was yet bound in
courtesy to taste of the dish presented, and to re¬
turn the customary acknowledgment, Hi-ne-a’ -weli^
“ I thank you an omission to do either being es¬
teemed a violation of the usages of life. A stranger
would be thus entertained without charge, as long
as he was pleased to remain ; and a relation was en¬
titled to a home among any of his kindred, while
he was disposed to claim it. Under the operation
of such a simple and universal law of hospitality,
hunger and destitution were entirely unknown
among them. This method of dealing with the
human appetite strikes the mind as novel ; but it
was founded upon a principle of brotherhood, and
of social intercourse, not much unlike the common
table of the Spartans. The abounding supplies of
Ch. VI]
corn yielded, with light cultivation, by their fruitful
fields, and the simple fare of the Indian, rendered
the prevailing hospitality an inconsiderable burden.
It rested chiefiy upon the industry, and therefore
upon the natural kindness of the Indian woman ;
who, by the cultivation of the maize, and their other
plants, and the gathering of the wild fruits, provid¬
ed the principal part of their subsistence, for the
warrior despised the toil of husbandry, and held all
labor beneath him. But it was in exact accordance
with the unparalleled generosity of the Indian
character. He would surrender his dinner to feed
the hungry, vacate his bed to refresh the weary,
and give up his apparel to clothe the naked. 'No
test of friendship was too severe, no sacrifice to re¬
pay a favor too great, no fidelity to an engagement
too inflexible for the Indian character. With an in¬
nate knowledge of the freedom and the dignity of
man, he has exhibited the noblest virtues of the
heart, and the kindest deeds of humanity in those
sylvan retreats, which we are wont to look back
upon as vacant and frightful solitudes.^
In their subsistence there was but a limited va¬
riety from the necessity of the case. Their prin-
^ Canassatego, a distinguished On- we warm him if he is cold, and give
onadaga chief, who flourished about him meat and drink that he may allay
the middle of the last century, thus his hunger and thirst ; and we spread
cuttingly contrasted the hospitality of soft furs for him to rest and sleep on.
the Iroquois with that of the whites, We demand nothing in return. But
in a conversation with Conrad W eiser, if I go into a white man’s house at
an Indian interpreter. “ You know Albany, and ask for victuals and
our practice. If a white man, in drink, they say, ‘ Where is your
travelling through our country, enters money ?’ And if I have none, they
one of our cabins, we aU treat him as say, ‘ Get out, you Indian dog! ”
I do yotu We dry him if he is wet.
[Book II.
cipal articles of food were cracked corn, and skinned
corn liommony, two or tkree varieties of corn bread,
venison and other game, sonps, succotash, charred
and dried green corn prepared in different ways,
wild fruit, ground nuts, {apios tuberosa^ resembling
wild potatoes, beans and squashes. These were the
staples of their consumption, furnishing a consider¬
able diversity of dishes, but a limited range to the
appetite. They had also several kinds of tea. A
favorite beverage w^as made from the tips of hem¬
lock boughs boiled in water, and seasoned with
maple sugar. Maple tea was prepared by boihng
sap, and seasoning it with sassafras root ; and spice
tea, by steeping a species of wild spice.
Crimes and offences were so unfrequent under their
social system, that the Iroquois can scarcely be said
to have had a criminal code. Yet there were cer¬
tain misdemeanors which fell under the judicial cog¬
nizance of the sachems, and were punished by them
in proportion to their magnitude. Witchcraft was
punishable with death. Any person could take the
life of a witch when discovered in the act. If this
was not done, a council was called, and the witch
arraigned before it, in the presence of the accuser.
A full confession, with a promise of amendment,
secured a discharge. But if the accusation was de¬
nied, witnesses were called and examined concerning
the circumstances of the case; and if they estab¬
lished the charge to the satisfaction of the council,
which they rarely failed to do, condemnation fol¬
lowed, with a sentence of death. The witch was
Ch. VI]
then delivered over to such executioners as volun¬
teered for the purpose, and by them was led away
to punishment. After the decision of the council,
the relatives of the witch gave him up to his doom
without a murmur.
Adultery was punished by whipping; but the
punishment was inflicted upon the woman alone,
who was supposed to be the only offender. A coun¬
cil passed upon the question, and if the charge was
sustained, they ordered her to be publicly whipped
by persons appointed for the purpose. This was
the ancient custom, when such transgressions were
exceedingly rare.
The greatest of all human crimes, murder, was
punished with death ; but the act was open to con¬
donation. Unless the family were appeased, the
murderer, as with the ancient Greeks, was given up
to their private vengeance. They could take his
life whenever they found him, even after the lapse
of years, without being held accountable. A present
of white wampum, sent on the part of the murderer
to the family of his victim, when accepted, for¬
ever obliterated and wiped out the memory of the
transaction. Immediately on the commission of a
murder, the affair was taken up by the tribes to
which the parties belonged, and strenuous efforts
were made to effect a reconciliation, lest private
retaliation should lead to disastrous consequences.
If the criminal belonged to one of the first four
tribes, and the deceased to one of the second four,
these tribes assembled in separate councils, to in-
[Book II.
quire into all tlie facts of tlie case. The question
of the guilt or innocence of the accused was generally
an easy matter to determine, when the consequences
of guilt were open to condonation. The first coun¬
cil then ascertained whether the offender was willing
to confess his crime, and to make atonement. If he
was, the council immediately sent a belt of white
wampum, in his name, to the other council, which
contained a message to that effect. The latter then
endeavored to pacify the family of the deceased, to
quiet their excitement, and to induce them to accept
the wampum in condonation. If this was not sent
in due time, or the family resisted all persuasions to
receive it, then their revenge was allowed to take
its course. Had it chanced that both parties be¬
longed to one of the four brother tribes, a council
of this division alone would convene, to attempt an
adjustment among themselves. If, however, the
family continued implacable, the further interfer¬
ence of mutual friends was given over, leaving the
question to be settled between the murderer and
the kindred of his victim, according to the ancient
usage. If the belt of wampum was received before
the avenger had been appointed, and had left the
lodge on his mission, it was usually accepted as a
condonation, but if he had gone forth, the time for
reparation had passed. The family then either took
upon themselves jointly the obligation of taking what
they deemed a just retribution, or appointed an aven¬
ger, who resolved never to rest until life had answer¬
ed for life. In such cases, the murderer usually fled.
Ch. YI.]
As all quarrels were generally reconciled by tbe
relatives of the parties, long-clierisbed animosities,
and consequently bomicides, were unfrequent in an¬
cient times. The present of white wampum was
not in the nature of a compensation for the hfe of
the deceased, but of a regretful confession of the
crime, with a petition for forgiveness. It was a
peace-offering, the acceptance of which was pressed
by mutual friends, and under such influences that a
reconciliation was usually effected, except, perhaps,
in aggravated cases of premeditated murder.
Theft, the most despicable of human crimes, was
scai’cely known among them. In the days of their
primitive simplicity, a mercenary thought had not
entered the Indian mind. After the commencement
of their intercourse with the whites, the distribution
of presents and of ardent spirits among them, and
the creation of new kinds of property by the pur¬
suits of trade, so far corrupted the habits of the
Indian, that in some instances the vagrant and in¬
temperate were led to the commission of this offence.
But in justice to them it must be acknowledged,
that no people ever possessed a higher sense of honor
and self-respect in this particular, or looked down
with greater disdain upon this shameful practice,
than did the Iroquois. To this day, among their
descendants, this offence is almost unknown. No
locks, or bolts, or private repositories were ever neces¬
sary for the protection of property among them¬
selves. The lash of public indignation, the severest
punishment known to the red man, was the only
[Book II
penalty attaclied to tMs dereliction from tlie path
of integrity.
These were the fom’ principal crimes against so¬
ciety among onr primitive inhabitants. The intro¬
duction of ardent spirits among them, in modem
times, has changed the face of Indian society, and
proved the fruitful source of all their calamities;
aggravating those disorders which were incident to
their social system, and introducing new ones entirely
unknown in the days of their sylvan independence.
Against this infamous traffic, their wise and good
men, from the earliest period of their intercourse
with us, have put forth incessant but unavailing
protestations. The power of self-control, in this
particular, was much weaker with the red man than
the white; and the consequences of indulgence
more lamentable and destructive. The “ fire-water,”
as they have fitly termed it, has been a more invin¬
cible and devouring enemy than civilization itself,
to both of which causes, about in equal degrees,
they owe their displacement. It filled their villages
with vagrancy, violence and bloodshed : it invaded
the peace of the domestic fireside, stimulated the
fiercest passions, introduced disease, contention and
strife ; thus wasting them away by violence, poverty
and sickness, and by the casualties of hunger and
cold. If there is any one act in our past intercourse
with the Iroquois, for which we are more reprehen¬
sible than another, it was the permission, short of
the penalty of hanging, of this most nefarious and
inhuman traffic. A Mohawk chief, in 1754, thus
Ch. VI]
addressed tlie governor of tlie province of New
York upon tkis subject: “Tbere is an affair about
wMcb our hearts tremble ; this is the selling of rum
in our castles. It destroys many both of the old
and young people. We request of all the governors
here present, that it may be foibidden to carry it
among any of the Five Nations.”^ About the same
time a representation was made to the British gov¬
ernment, as follows : “ They are supplied with rum
by the traders, in vast and almost incredible quan¬
tities, the laws of the colonies now in force being
insufficient to restrain the supply ; and the Indians
of every nation are frequently drunk, and abused
in their trade, and their affections thereby alienated
from the Englfeh. They often wound and murder
each other in their liquor, and to avoid revenge flee
to the French ; and perhaps more have been lost
by these means than by the French artifices.”^
The love of truth was another marked trait of
the Indian character. This inborn sentiment flour¬
ished in the period of their highest prosperity, in
all the freshness of its primeval purity. On all oc¬
casions, and at whatever peril, the Iroquois spoke
the truth without fear and without hesitation. Dis¬
simulation was ' not an Indian habit. In fact, the
language of the Iroquois does not admit of double
speaking, or of the perversion of the words of the
speaker. It is simple and direct, not admitting of
those shades of meaning and those nice discrimina¬
tions which pertain to polished languages. Subse-
* Ib. ii. 610.
1 Doc. Hist. K T. ii. 691.
[Book IL
quent to tlieir discovery, in tlieir intercourse with
the w'hites, their native truthfulness was sometimes
corrupted by traffic and intemperance, but, as a
people, they have preserved to this day the same
elevation of sentiment in this particular which char¬
acterized their ancestors.
To the faith of treaties the Ii’oquois adhered with
unwavering fidelity. Having endured the severest
trials of political disaster, this faith furnishes one of
the proudest monuments of their national integrity.
They held fast to the “ covenant chain” with the
British until they were themselves deserted, and
their entire country became the forfeit of theii’ fidel¬
ity. In their numerous transactions with the seve¬
ral provinces formed out of their ancient territories,
no serious cause of complaint was found against
them for the non-fulfilment of treaty stipulations,
although they were shorn of their possessions by
treaty after treaty, and oftentimes made the vic¬
tims of deception and fraud. In their intercourse
with Indian nations, they frequently entered into
treaties, sometimes of amity and alliance, sometimes
of protection only, and in some instances for special
purposes. x\ll of these national compacts were
“ talked into” strings of wampum, to use the Indian
expression, after which these were delivered into the
custody of II(Hio-we-na'-to, the Onondaga sachem,
who was made hereditary keeper of the Wampum,
at the institution of the League ; and from him and
liis successors, was to be sought their interpretation
from generation to generation. Hence the expres-
Ch. VI]
sion — “ This belt preserves my words,” so frequently
met with at the close of Indian speeches, on the pre¬
sentation of a belt. Indian nations, after treating,
always exchanged belts, which were not only the
ratification, but the memorandum of the compact.
There was an ancient treaty between the Senecas
and the GorquorgoJ-o^o^ or Eries, who resided upon
the southern shore of Lake Erie, to the effect that
the Genesee river should be the boundary between
them, and that when a hostile band of either nation
re-crossed this river into its own territories, it should
be safe from further pursuit. An infraction of this
treaty was one of the reasons of the long-cherished
animosity of the Iroquois against them. A similar
compact was once made with the O-yorda'-go-o-no^
or Cherokees, by which the Tennessee river was the
limit of pursuit. If a war-party of the latter had
returned and re-crossed the Tennessee before they
were overtaken by the pursuing Iroquois, they were
as safe from their attack, as if intrenched behind an
impregnable rampart. The Iroquois band could
still invade, if disposed, the territory of the enemy,
^ This was the Iroquois name of
the Erie nation, who were expelled
by them about the year 1665. They
were an olfshoot of the Iroquois stock,
and spoke a dialect of their language.
Charlevoix calls them the “ Cat Na¬
tion.” Vol. ii. p. 62. It is a singular
fact that the Neuter Nation, who
dwelt on the banks of the Niagara
river, and who were expelled by the
Iroquois about the year 1643, was
known among them as the Je-go'-sa-
sa, or Cat Nation. The word signi¬
fies a wild-cat; and from being the
name of a woman of great influence
among them, it came to be the name
of the nation. Charlevoix also
speaks of the Neuter Nation, vol. i.
p. 37 Y. It is quite probable that he
transposed or confounded their abo¬
riginal names.
* O-ya-doL'-go-o no, the Iroquois
name of the Cherokees, signifies, “ The
people who dwell in caves.”
33S
[Book H
bnt they passed the camp of the retreating Tvar-
party without offering the slightest molestation.
The Iroquois prided themselv^ upon their sacred
regard for the public faith, and punished the want
of it with severity when an occasion presented. An
example is to be found in the case of the Sag-a-na’-ga.,
or Delawares. After they had been subdued,
and had acknowledged their dependence by send¬
ing the tributary wampum, they made an inroad
upon a western nation under the protection of the
Iroquois, notwithstanding their knowledge of the
treaty, and a prohibition against its inJ&ingement.
A deputation of Iroquois chiefe went immediately into
the country of the Delawares, and having assembled
the people in council, they degraded them from the
rank of even a tributary nation. Having reproved
them for their want of faith, they forbade them from
ever after going out to war, divested them of all
civil powers, and declared that they should hence¬
forth be as women. This degradation they signified
in the figurative way of putting upon them the Gor
l£a--ah^ or skirt of the female, and placing in their
hands a com-pounder, thus showing that their busi¬
ness ever after should be that of women. The Del¬
awares never emancipated themselves, after this act
of denationalization.^
^ The Ddavarea, about Uie year wh«3i some extracts are gabjoiiied hi
1^42, so3d aome of tbeir Lands ftorthei illastraiioo of Uie lordly man-
npou ibe river to Penn- nex in which the Iroquois coodocted
grlTania, witooot the knovled^ or themselv^ towuds sal^o^ted na-
eotsent of the Iroqtiois, Canass^ego, taois. *Let this belt wampinn
the Ooondag&chicf befwe mentiaoed, serve to chastise you. * * How came
F^roved them in a speech, from you to take uptm you to sell land at
Ch. VI.]
After war liad been declared against any nation,
either by the congress of sachems at Onondaga, or
by an individual nation against a neighboring en¬
emy, the existence of the war was indicated by a
tomahawk iDainted red, ornamented with red feath¬
ers, and with black wampum, struck in the war-post
in each village of the League. Any person was
then at liberty to organize a band, and make an in¬
vasion. This was effected in a summary manner.
Dressed in full costume, the war-chief who proposed
to solicit volunteers and conduct the expedition,
went through the village sounding the war-whoop
to announce his intentions ; after which he went to
the war-post, Gd-on-dote'^ and having struck into
it his red tomahawk, he commenced the war-dance.
A group gathered around him, and as their martial
ardor was aroused by the dance, they enlisted, one
after the other, by joining in its performance. In this
manner a company was soon formed ; the matrons
of the village prepared their subsistence while the
dance was performing ; and at its close, while they
all? We conquered you; we made and absolute order to depart from,
women of you ; you know you are the land, you are now to take notice
women, and can no more sell land of what we have further to say to
than women ; nor is it fit that you you. This string of wampum serves
should have the power of selling to forbid you, your children and your
lands, since you would abuse it. * * grand-children to the latest posterity
We therefore assign you two places to forever, meddling in land affairs;
go, either to Wyoming or Shamokin. neither you, nor any who shall descend
You may go to either of these places, firom you, are ever hereafter to pre-
and then we shall have you more sume to sell any land. For which
imder our eye, and shall see how you pmpose you are to preserve this
behave. Doa’t deliberate, but re- string, in memory of what your uncles
move, and take this belt of warn- have this day given you in charga”
pum.” * * Then taking another belt Golden’s Hist. Five Nations, Lond.
he continued. “After our just reproof, Ed. I'JSO, page 80-81.
[Book IL
were yet fired witli eutliusiasm. for tlie enterprise,
tliey immediately left ttie village, and turned tlieir
footsteps towards the country of the enemy. If the
movement was simultaneous in several villages, these
parties joined each other on their march, hut each
hand continued under the direction of its own war-
chief. Their subsistence was usually charred corn,
parched a second time, pounded into fine flour, and
mixed with maple-sugar, thus reducing it in hulk
and lightness to such a degree, that the warrior
could carry without inconvenience in his hear-skin
pocket a sufficient supply for a long and perilous
expedition. The hand took the war-path in single
file, and moved with such rapidity that it was hut
five days’ journey to the country of the Cherokees,
upon the southern hanks of the Tennessee. At
their night encampments, they cut upon the trees
certaia devices to indicate them numhei*s and desti¬
nation. On their retm-n, they did the same, show¬
ing also the number of captives, and the number
slain. When the returning war-party reached the
outskirts of their village, they sounded the war-
whoop to announce their approach, and to summon
the people to assemble for their reception. Then
leading their captives, they entered the village in a
dancing procession, as they had shortly before gone
out. After they had reached the war-post in the
centre of the place, a wise-man addressed them in a
speech of welcome and congratulation ; in reply to
which, a speech was made by one of the hand, de-
Ch. VI]
scriptive of their adventures, after which the war-
dance was again enjoyed.
The Iroquois never exchanged prisoners with In¬
dian nations, nor ever sought to reclaim their own
people from captivity among them. Adoption or
the torture were the alternative chances of the cap¬
tive. A distinguished war-chief would sometimes
be released by them from admiration of his military
achievements, and be restored to his people, with
presents and other marks of favor. No pledges
were exacted in these occasional instances of mag¬
nanimity, but the person thus discharged esteemed
himself bound in honor never again to take the
war-path against his generous enemy. If adopted,
the allegiance and the affections of the captive were
transferred to his adopted nation. When the In¬
dian went forth to war, he emphatically took his
life in his hand, knowing that if he should be
taken it was forfeited by the laws of war ; and if
saved by adoption, his country, at least, was lost
forever. From the foundation of the Confederacy,
the custom of adoption has prevailed among the Iro¬
quois, who carried this principle farther than other
Indian nations. It was not confined to captives
alone, but was extended to fragments of dismem¬
bered tribes, and even to the admission of inde¬
pendent nations into the League. It was a leading
feature of their policy to subdue adjacent nations
by conquest, and having absorbed them by natural¬
ization, to mould them into one common family with
themselves. Some fragments of tribes were adopted
[Book II.
and distributed among tbe nations at larg'e ; some
were received into tbe League as independent mem¬
bers, as tbe Tuscaroras, while others were taken
under its shelter, like the Mohekunnucks, and as¬
signed a territory within their own. The fruit of
this system of policy was their gradual elevation to
a universal supremacy ; a supremacy which was
spreading so rapidly at the epoch of their discovery,
as to threaten the subjugation of all the nations
east of the Mssissippi.
A regular ceremony of adoption was performed
in each case, to complete the naturalization. With
captives, this ceremony was the gantlet, after which
new names were assigned to them ; and at the next
religions festival, their names, together with the
tribe and family into which they were respectively
adopted, were pubhcly announced. Upon the re¬
turn of a war-party with captives, if they had lost
any of their own number in the expedition, the
families to which these belonged were first allowed
an opportunity to supply from the captives the
places made vacant in their households. Any fam¬
ily could then adopt out of the residue any who
chanced to attract their favorable notice, or whom
they wished to save. At the time appointed, which
was usually three or four days after the return of
the band, the women and children of the Ullage
arranged themselves in two parallel rows just with¬
out the place, each one having a whip with which
to lash the captives as they passed between the
lines. The male captives, who alone ivere required
Ch, VI.]
to undergo tMs test of their powers of endurance,
were brought out, and each one was shown in turn
the house in which he was to take refuge, and which
was to be his future home, if he passed successfully
through the ordeal. They were then taken to the
head of this long avenue of whips, and were com-
pelled, one after another, to run through it for their
lives, and for the entertainment of the surrounding
throng, exposed at every step, undefended, and with
naked backs, to the merciless inflictions of the whip.
Those who fell from exhaustion, were immediately
despatched as unworthy to be saved ; but those who
emerged in safety from this test of their physical
energies, were from that moment treated with the
utmost affection and kindness. The effects of this
contrast in behavior upon the mind of the captive
must have been singular enough. During the slow
progress of these arrangements, how many captives
have listened to every sound, and watched every
motion with the most intense solicitude. Carried
into the heart of the country of the enemy, far
away from all hope of succor, the question was
about to be decided whether the clemency of their
captors would bestow upon them the rights of citi¬
zenship, or their warlike frenzy lead them away
to the torture. Its decision depended upon the
most fickle impulses. Who shall relate our sylvan
history ! To the red man compassion has seldom
been ascribed, but yet these scenes in the forest
oftentimes revealed the most generous traits of
character. Admiration for the chivalric bearing
344 SPIRIT OF THE LEAGUE. [Book II.
of a captive, tlie recollection of a past favor, or a
sudden impulse of compassion, were sufficient to de¬
cide tie question of adoption. When the perils of
the gantlet, which was an enviable lot compared
with the fate of the rejected, were over, he ceased
to be an enemy, and became an Iroquois. Not only
so, but he was received into the family by which he
was adopted with all the cordiality of aiffection, and
into all the relations of the one whose place he was
henceforth to ffil. By these means all recollections
of his distant kindred were gradually effaced, bound
as he was by gratitude to those who had restored a
life which was forfeited by the usages of war. If a
captive, after adoption, became discontented, which
is said to have been seldom the case, he was some¬
times restored, with presents, to his nation, that
they might know he had lost nothing by his cap¬
tivity among them.
The rejected captives were then led away to the
torture, and to death. It is not necessary to de¬
scribe this horrible practice of our primitive inhab¬
itants. It is sufficient to say that it was a test of
courage. When the Indian went out upon the war¬
path, he prepared his mind for this very contin¬
gency, resolving to show the enemy, if captured,
that his courage was equal to any trial, and above
the power of death itself. The exhibitions of he¬
roism and fortitude by the red man under the suf¬
ferings of martyrdom, almost surpass belief. They
considered the character of their nation in their
Ch. VL]
keeping, and the glory of tke race as involved and
illustrated in tke manner of tkeir deatk.
A slight notice of a few of their customs in rela¬
tion to the hunt, will close this desultory chapter.
The deer, the elk, the moose, the bear, and several
species of wild fowl, furnish their principal game.
At certain seasons of the year, the female of all ani¬
mals was spared, by the provisions of their game-
laws, lest there should be a diminution of the sup¬
ply. Not having a species of dog adapted to the
chase, they were obliged to resort to the still hunt,
and seize the opportunity whenever it presented ;
thus rendering it necessary to success that the
hunter should become well versed in the habits of
animals. Sometimes they trapped both deer and
bear, and spread nets for quails and other small
fowl. One species of deer-trap was attached to a
young tree bent over, and so adjusted that the
springing of the trap fastened a loop around the
hind legs of the deer, and at the same time released
the tree, which drew him up, and held him suspend¬
ed in the air. They practiced another method of
taking deer, in herds. A large party of hunters
was formed, and a brush fence was built in the shape
of the letter V, two or three miles in length on each
side. The woods were then fired in the rear at
some miles’ distance, so as to drive the deer towards
the opening, into which they were guided by parties
stationed upon either side. They followed the fence
down to the angle, where the arrows of the unseen
hunters soon brought them down one after the other.
[Book IL
Sometimes a hundred were thus taken at one time.
In the bear-hunt it was customary to tire out the
animal by a long chase, as when fresh and vigorous
he was too formidable to attack with the bow and
arrow, or the hunting tomahawk ; but when wearied
out it was an easy matter to overcome him. The
hunter selected the choice pieces of venison, and
having removed the bone, and dried and cured
the flesh before a fire, he packed it in small bark
barrels, and thus carried it home upon his back.
It was so much reduced in weight and bulk by the
process of cming, that a hunter could thus transport,
with ease, the substance of a dozen deer. Their
skins were also dried and packed, and carried home
in the same manner. When deer or bear were taken
in winter, within a day’s journey of their villages,
bark sledges were prepared, on which they were
drawn home, undressed, upon the snow crust.
Hunting was a passion with the red man. He
pursued it for the excitement and employment it
afforded, as well as for subsistence, frequently mak¬
ing long and toilsome expeditions. The Senecas, for
example, in the season of the fall hunt, would leave
their villages in small parties ; some turning south,
would encamp upon the Chemung river, and traverse
the whole adjacent country ; others, descending the
Allegany, penetrated the inland regions of Ohio,
which was a favorite hunting-ground, not only of
the Senecas, but also of the other nations of the
League ; while still others encamped within the Hia-
gai’a peninsula, which was foimerly a place of great
Oh. VL]
34Y
resort for tlie beaver-hunt. The Cayugas turned to
the Susquehanna, which furnished them an inex¬
haustible store. They also ranged Pennsylvania;
and with parties from the other nations, they not un-
frequently roamed as far as the Potomac, which was
within their ancient domain. Parties of the Onon-
dagas descended the Chenango to the Susquehanna,
or turning northward, perchance, crossed over into
Canada. The Oneidas, for the fall hunt, descended
the Unadilla, and also went northward, into the re¬
gions watered by the Black river. Lastly, the Mo¬
hawks, leaving their valley, found well-stocked
hunting-grounds upon the head-waters of the Dela¬
ware and Susquehanna, and also in the wild and
rugged regions of the north, and around lake
Champlain.
About midwinter these widely scattered parties
began to find their way back to their villages for
the celebration of their annual jubilee; after which
they surrendered themselves for a season to idleness,
or to the amusements of the winter life. With the
spring came the fishing season, in which for a time
they found employment. The summer again was a
season of repose, except when enlivened by councils,
by their religious festivals, or by the adventures of
the war-path.
In this round of occupations the Iroquois glided
through the year. The progress of the seasons sug¬
gested their appropriate employments, if not marked
in the exuberance of unsubdued nature, by the same
attractive changes which pursue each other in re-
SPIRIT OP THE LEAaUE.
[Book II.
gions beantified by cultivation. While with the
biHest appreciation be enjoyed the grandeur of na¬
ture in ber wild attire, and surrendered bimself to
ber deepest inspirations, be yet knew nothing of her
inexhaustible fruitfulness, or of those more delicate
features of beauty which are revealed only by the
hand of art. Aspiring to a freedom as boundless
as the forest, satisfied with the martial pursuits, the
amusements, the friendships and the social privi¬
leges of Indian life, and proud of their military
achievements and of the fame of the League among
Indian nations, the Iroquois measured out their days
with all the happiness which these considerations
could secure, and with all the contentment which
could result from knowing no higher destiny.
Book III, Chapter I
Fabrics of the Iroquois. — Their Artisan Intellect. — Indian
Pottery. — Earthen Vessels. — Moccason. — War Club. —
Tomahawk. — Rope Making. — Bark Vessels. — Bark Canqe. —
Corn Mortar. — Maize. — Tobacco. — Snow Shoe. — Indian Saddle.
— ^Miscellaneous Inventions. — Basket Making. — Costumes. —
Baby Frame. — Diffusion of Indian Arts. — Improvement of
THE Iroquois.
The fabrics of a people unlock tbeir social histo¬
ry. They speak a language which is silent, but yet
more eloquent than the written page. As memori¬
als of former times, they commune directly with the
beholder, opening the unwritten history of the pe¬
riod they represent, and clothing it with perpetual
freshness. However rude the age, or uncultivated
the people from whose hands they come, the pro¬
ducts of human ingenuity are ever invested with a
peculiar and even solemn interest. It is greatly to
be regretted that so few remains of the skill and
industry of the Iroquois have come down to the
present age, to illustrate the era of Indian occupa¬
tion. Although their fabrics are indicative of a
low state of the useful arts, the artificial contrivan-
[Book IH.
ces by wbicb tbey were surrounded ai’e yet the in¬
dices of tbeir social condition, and for this reason
are not devoid of instruction. Further than this, it
is but just to them to save from oblivion the fruits
of their inventive intellect, however unpretending
they may seem, that, in the general judgment pro¬
nounced upon theii' memory, they may not be de¬
frauded of even theii’ humblest inventions.
Since the commencement of European intercourse,
and especially within the last century, great changes
Have been wrought among the Iroquois. Their
primitive fabrics have mostly passed away, and with
them, many of their original inventions. The in¬
troduction of articles of more skilful manufacture
has led to the gradual disuse of many of their sim¬
ple arts. At the present moment, therefore, much
of the fruit of their inventive capacity is entirely
lost. Fragments, it is true, are frequently disen¬
tombed from the resting-places to which they had
been consigned by their burial rites, but they are
mere vestiges of the past, and afford but a slight
indication of their social condition, or of the range
of their artisan intellect. It would now be ex¬
tremely difficult to furnish a full description of their
implements, domestic utensils, and miscellaneous
fabrics. Many of the inventions of the earlier fro-
quois ai*e still preserved among their descendants
now residing within om’ limits and in Canada ; but
that portion of them which would especially serve
to illustrate the condition of the hunter life have
passed beyond our reach.
Ch.1] their artisan intellect. 353
Tile remains of Indian art whicli are found scat¬
tered over the soil of New York are of two distinct
kinds, and to be ascribed to widely different* peri¬
ods. The first class belong to the ante-Columbian
period, or the era of the “ Mound Builders,” whose
defensive works, mounds, and sacred enclosures are
scattered so profusely throughout the west.^ With
the second period may be connected the name of
the Iroquois. It will also include the remains of
the fugitive races, who, since the extermination of
the “ Mound Builders,” have displaced each other
in succession, until the period of the Iroquois com¬
menced.
In the fabrics of the Iroquois a wide range is ob¬
servable. It reaches from the rudest specimens of
pottery of the ancient, to the most delicate needle¬
work of the modern Iroquois. Since the era of the
discovery, and the commencement of their inter¬
course with Europeans, a gradual revolution has
been effected. Their social condition has changed
greatly, and is changing from day to day. With
equal pace their simple arts have been dropping
from their hands, one after the other, as they have
taken up agricultural pursuits, until at the present
epoch the fabrics of the Iroquois contrast very
^ The remains of this period indicate which are elaborately and ingeni-
a semi-civilization of the most im- ously wrought. The fugitive speci-
posing character, including a con- mens belonging to this period, which
siderable development of the art of are occasionally found within the lim-
agriculture. Exclusive of the mounds its of our State, are much superior to
and enclosures, they have left imple- any of the productions of the earlier
ments of copper and chert, of stone, Iroquois,
porphyry and earthen, some of
[Book HI
strangely witli those of their ancestors. In their
present advanced condition, a large proportion of
theh ^icles are of a mixed character. They rath¬
er exhibit the application of Indian ingenuity to
fabrics of foreign manufacture, as shown in their re¬
duction into use, than originality of invention. But
this class of articles are not without a peculiar in¬
terest. They fuimish no slight indication of artisan
capacity, and will serve as a species of substitute for
those articles which they have displaced, and those
inventions which they have hurried into forgetful¬
ness.
One of the most ancient Indian arts was that of
pottery. It was carried to considerable perfection
by the Iroquois at an eaidy day, as is shown by the
specimens which are stiH occasionally disentombed
from the burial-places, where they were deposited
beside the dead ; but the art itself has been so long
disused, that it is now entirely lost. Pipes, and
earthen pots of various designs and sizes, are the
principal articles thus found. Some of these, speci¬
mens of black pottery, which is the best variety,
ai’e of so fine a texture as to admit of a tolerable
polish, and so firm as to have the appearance of
stone. Their common pottery is of a clay color,
and is a compound of common clay and pulverized
quartz.
This pipe is of black pottery, well finished, and
neai’ly as hard as marble, and is also represented
at its actual size. In some specimens the bowl is
fronted with a human face, or with a wolf or dog’s
Ch. L]
IKDIAls' POTTERY.
head. Frequently these imitations are delicately,
even exquisitely made. Another species of pipe, in
use among the Iroquois in later times, was cut out
of soap-stone, which yields readily to metallic instru¬
ments. A representation of one of these pipes of
[Book HI.
Seneca manufacture, will be found in tbe plate (see
page 104.) It is fronted with a human face, and de¬
signed to be used with a stem-piece of reed. The
other, in the same plate, is also a modern Iroquois
pipe, made of Catlinite, or the red Missouri pipe-
stone. Pipes of this description are used chiefly
among the Sioux, by whom they were introduced
into use, and other western Indians; and were
rather accidental, than common among the Iro¬
quois.
Ch. I]
This pipe is anomalous. It is of black marble,
highly polished, with the bowl and stem bored with
great precision. Doubtless it is a relic of the
“Mound Builders,” which, having found its way
into the hands of a Seneca, was finally buried by
his side in the valley of the Genesee, to be again
brought to light upon the excavation of the Valley
canal. Like the pipes of that era, it has the bowl
in the central part of the stone. In material, also,
and in finish, it is unlike, and superior to the pipes
of the Iroquois.
Earthen pots of this description are frequently
found beside the remains of the Iroquois. They
are usually of sufficient capacity to contain from two
to six quarts. On exposure to the air, after disin¬
terment, they are apt to crumble, being usually, if
not always, of the light-colored common pottery,
which is less firm and coherent than the black. In
these earthen vessels it was customary to deposit food
for the departed, while journeying to the realm of
the Great Spirit. These earthen dishes are still
found in Indian burial-places, where, perhaps, they
[Book IIL
had lain for centuries ; and the fragments of those
which have been broken by the plough, are also
mingled with the soil.
Metallic implements were unknown among them,
as they had not the use of metals. Rude knives of
chert were used for skinning deer, and similar pur¬
poses. For cutting trees and excavating canoes,
and com mortars, in a word, for those necessary
purposes for which the axe would seem to be indis¬
pensable, the Iroquois used the stone chisel, Uh'-ga-
(hgwdt'-M. In cutting trees, &e was applied at the
foot, and the chisel used to clear away the coal.
By a repetition of the process, trees were felled and
cut to pieces. Wooden vessels were hollowed out
by the same means. Fire and the chisel were the
substitutes for the axe. The chisel was usually about
six inches long, three wide, and two thick ; the
lower end being fashioned like the edge of an axe.
Stone gouges in the form of a convex chisel, were
also used when a more regular concavity of the ves¬
sel was desired. Stone mortars for pounding corn,
grinding mineral paint, and for pulverizing roots
and barks for medicines, were also among their
utensils.
Arrow-heads of chert, or flint, were so common,
that it is scarcely necessary to refer to them. Occa¬
sionally they are found with a twist to make the
arrow revolve in its flight. It is well known that
the Indian always feathered his arrow for the same
purpose. It is not uncommon to find the places
where these ai*row-heads were manufactured, which
for femall.
Ch.l] mogcason. ^359
is indicated by the fragments of chert which had
been made by cleavage. In the western mounds
rows of similar chert heads have been found lying
side by side, like teeth, the row being about two
feet long. This has suggested the idea that they
were set in a frame and fastened with thongs, thus
making a species of sword. Their discovery in
those mounds also establishes the great antiquity of
the art.
In ancient times the Iroquois used the stone toma¬
hawk. It was fashioned something like an axe, but
in place of an eye for the helve, a deep groove was
cut around the outside, by means of which the
handle was firmly attached with a withe or thong.
Oval stones, wdth groves around their greatest cir¬
cumference, were also secured in the head of war-
clubs, and thus made dangerous weapons. Other
implements and utensils of stone, some of which
were very ingeniously worked, were in use among
the Iroquois; and also personal ornaments of the
same material, but a sufficient number have been
brought under notice.
The moccason (see plate, page 359,) is preemi¬
nently an Indian invention, and one of the highest
antiquity. It is true to nature in its adjustment to
EfCIDENT TO THE LEAGTJR
[Book IH.
tlie foot, "beaiitifal in its materials and finish, and
dnrable as an article of apparel. It will compare
faTorably witt tlie best single article for tbe protec¬
tion and adornment of tbe foot eTer inTented, either
in ancient or modem times. With tbe sanction of
fashion, it wonld snpei*sede among ns a long list of
similar inventions. Other nations have fallen be¬
hind the Indian, in this one particnlar at least. The
masses of the Romans wore the calcens lignens, or
wooden shoe ; the masses of Germany and Ireland,
and of many of the European nations, formerly wore
the same. With the cothurnus and sandal of the
ancients, and the boot of the modems, the moccason
admits of no unfavorable comparison. It deserves
to be classed among the high^ articles of apparel
ever invented, both in usefolness, durability and
beauty.
The moccason is made of one piece of deer-sldn.
It is seamed up at the heel, and also in front, above
the foot, leaving the bottom of the moccason with¬
out a seam. In front the deer-sMn is gathered, in
place of being crimped; over this part, porcupine
quids or beads are worked, in various patterns.
The plain moccason rises several inch^ above the
ankle, like the Roman cothurnus, and is fastened
with deer strings ; but usually this part is turned
down, so as to expose a part of the instep, and is
ornamented with bead-work, as represented in the
plate. A small bone near the ankle joint of the
deer, has famished the moccason needle from time
immemorial; and the sinews of the animal the
Ch. L]
thread. These bone needles are found in the mounds
of the West, and beside the skeletons of the Iro¬
quois, where they were deposited with religious
care. This isolated fact would seem to indicate an
affinity, in one art at least, between the Iroquois
and the Mound Builders, whose name, and era of
occupation and destiny are entirely lost.
In ancient times the Iroquois used another shoe,
made of the skin of the elk. They cut the skin
above and below the gambrel joint, and then took
it off entire. As the hind leg of the elk inclines at
this joint, nearly at a right angle, it was naturally
adapted to the foot. The lower end was sewed
firmly with sinew, and the upper part secured above
the ankle with deer strings.
In connection with this subject is the art of tan¬
ning deer-skins ; as they still tan them after the an¬
cient method. It is done with the brain of the
deer, the tanning properties of which, according to
a tradition, were discovered by accident. The brain
is mingled with moss, to make it adhere sufficiently
to be formed into a cake, which is afterwards hung
by the fire to dry. It is thus preserved for years.
When the deer-skin is fresh, the hair, and also the
grain of the skin are taken off, over a cylindrical
beam, with a wooden blade or stone scraper. A
solution is then made by boiling a cake of the brain
in water, and the moss, which is of no use, being
removed, the skin is soaked in it for a few hours.
It is then wrung out and stretched, until it be¬
comes dry and pliable. Should it be a thick one,
mCIDENT TO THE LEAGHK
[Book III
it would be necessary to repeat tbe process until it
becomes tborougbly penetrated by the solution.
The skin is still porous and easily torn. To correct
both, a smoke is made, and the skin placed over it
in such a manner as to enclose it entirely. Each
side is smoked in this way until the pores are closed,
and the skin has become thoroughly toughened,
with its color changed from white to a kind of
brown. It is then ready for use.
They also use the brain of other animals, and
sometimes the back-bone of the eel, which, pounded
up and boiled, possesses nearly the same properties
for tanning. Bear-skins were never tanned. They
were scraped and softened, after which they were
dried, and used without removing the hair, either as
an article of apparel, or a^ a mattrass to sleep upon.
ga-je'-wa, or war-club.
Before the tomahawk came into use among the
Boquois, their principal weapons were the bow, the
stone tomahawk, and the war-club. The Ga-je'-wa
was a heavy weapon, usually made of ironwood,
with a large ball of knot at the head. It was usu¬
ally about two feet in length, and the ball five or
Ch. I]
six inclies in diameter.’ In close combat it would
prove a formidable weapon. They wore it in tbe
belt, in front.
This species of war-club was also much used. It
was made of hard wood, elaborately carved, painted
and ornamented with feathers at the ends. In the
lower edge, a sharp-pointed deer’s horn, about four
inches in length, was inserted. It was thus rendered
a dangerous weapon in close combat, and would in¬
flict a deeper wound than the former. They wore
it in the girdle. At a later period they used the
same species of club, substituting a steel or iron
blade resembling a spearhead, in the place of the
horn. War-clubs of this description are still to be
found among the Iroquois, preserved as relics of
past exploits. It is not probable, however, that
these two varieties were peculiar to them; they
were doubtless common over the continent.
The tomahawk succeeded the war-club, as the
rifle did the bow. With the invention of this ter¬
rible implement of warfare the red man had noth¬
ing to do, except in having it so fashioned as to be
adapted to his taste and usage. The tomahawk is
[Book III
known as widely as tlie Indian, and the two names
have become apparently inseparable. They are
O-SQTJE'-SONTj or tomahawk.
made of steel, brass, or iron. The choicer articles
are surmounted by a pipe-bowl, and have a per¬
forated handle, that they may answer the double
purpose of ornament and use. In such the handle,
and often the blade itself, are richly inlaid with sil¬
ver. It is worn in the girdle, and behind the back,
except when in actual battle. They used it in close
combat with terrible effect, and also threw it with
unerring certainty at distant objects, making it re¬
volve in the air in its flight. With the Indian, the
tomahawk is the emblem of war itself To bury it,
is peace ; to raise it, is to declare the most deadly
warfare.
Eope-making, from filaments of bark, is also an
Indian art. The deer string answers a multitude of
pm^poses in their domestic economy ; but it could
not supply them all. Bark-rope, (^Gora'-shen-da^
has been fabricated among them from time imme¬
morial. In its manufacture, they use the bark of
Ch. I]
the slippery-elm, the red-elm, and the bass-wood.
Having removed the outer surface of the bark, they
divide it into narrow strips, and then boil it in ashes
and water. After it is dried it is easily separated
into small filaments, the strings running with the
grain several feet without breaking. These fila¬
ments are then put up in skeins and laid aside for
use. Slippery-elm makes the most pliable rope ; it
is soft to the touch, can be closely braided, and is
gus-ha'-ah, ok, burden-strap.
very durable. The burden-strap is worn around
the forehead, and lashed to a litter, which is borne
by Indian women on their back. It is usually
about fifteen feet in length, and braided into a belt
in the centre, three or four inches wide. Some of
them are entirely covered upon one side with por¬
cupine quill-work, after various devices, and are in
themselves remarkable products of skilful industry.
The braiding or knitting of the bark threads is ef¬
fected with a single needle of hickory. In other
specimens, the quill-work is sprinkled over the belt
for ornament, the quills in all cases being of divers
colors. Of all their fabrics, there is no one, per-
[Book IIL
liaps, wliicli surpasses the porcupine-quill burden-
strap, in skill of manufacture, richness of material,
or beauty of workmanship. In this species of
work, the Iroquois female excelled. They also
made a common bark rope for ordinary uses, which
consisted of three strands, hai’d twisted; a single
rope being frequently forty or fifty feet in length.
The aid, of rope-making, like many others, has
mostly fallen into disuse among the present Iro¬
quois. But few Indian families now provide them¬
selves with skeins of bark thread, or make any
ropes of this description.
Bark vessels and dishes of various kinds were in
common use among them. The bark barrel, Gii-
no’-qua^ was of the number. It was made of the
inner lind of red-elm bark, the grain running
around the barrel. Up the side it was stitched
firmly, and had a bottom and a lid secured in the
same manner. Such barrels were used to store
charred corn, beans, dried fruit, seeds, and a great
vaiiety of articles. They were very durable, and
when properly taken care of would last a hundred
years.
Cal.]
Trays of this description are found in every In¬
dian family. They serve a variety of purposes, but
are chiefly used for kneading, or rather preparing
corn bread. A strip of elm-bark, of the requisite
dimensions, was rounded and gathered up at the
ends, so as to form a shallow concavity. Around
the rim, both outside and in, splints of hickory were
adjusted, and stitched through and through with
the bark. These trays were of all sizes, from those
of sufficient capacity to contain one, to those large
enough for ten pecks. The rough bark was removed
from the outside, and the vessel within became
smooth with usage. They made durable and con¬
venient articles for holding corn meal, for preparing
corn bread, and for many other purposes.
In the construction of the bark canoe, the Iro¬
quois exercised considerable taste and skill. The
art appears to have been common to all the Indian
races within the limits of the republic, and the
mode of construction much the same. Birch bark
was the best material ; but as the canoe birch did
not grow within the home territories of the Iro¬
quois, they generally used the red-elm, and bitter-
nut-hickory. The canoe figured in the plate, (see
page 351,) is made of the bark of the red-elm, and
consists of but one piece. Having taken off a bark
of the requisite length and width, and removed the
rough outside, it was shaped in the canoe form.
[Book III,
Kim pieces of wliite-asli, or other elastic wood, of
the width of the hand, were then run around the
edge, outside and in, and stitched through and
through with the bark itself. In stitching, they
used bark thread or twine, and splints. The ribs
consisted of narrow strips of ash which were set
about a foot apart along the bottom of the canoe,
and having been turned up the sides, weTe secured
under the rim. Each end of the canoe was fash¬
ioned alike, the two side pieces inclining towards
each other until they united, and formed a sharp
and vertical prow. In size, these canoes varied
from twelve feet, with sufficient capacity to carry
two men, to forty feet with sufficient capacity for
thirty. The one figured in the plate is about twenty-
five feet in length, and its tonnage estimated at two
tons, about half ^that of the ordinary ^bateau.
Birch bark retained its place without warping, but
the elm and hickory bark canoes were exposed to
this objection. After being used, they were drawn
out of the water to dry. One of the chief advan¬
tages of these canoes, especially the birch bark,
was their extreme lightness, which often became a
matter of some moment from the flood wood and
water-falls, which obstructed the navigation of the
inland rivers. Two men could easily transport
these light vessels around these obstacles, and even
from one river to another when the portage was not
long.
For short excursions one person usually paddled
the canoe, standing up in the stern ; if more than
Ch. I]
two, and on a long expedition, they were seated at
equal distances upon each side alternately. In the
fur trade these canoes were extensively used. They
coasted lakes Erie and Ontario, and turning up the
Oswego river into the Oneida lake, they went from
thence over the carrying place into the Mohawk,
which they descended to Schenectady. They would
usually carry about twelve hundred pounds of fur.
At the period of the invasions of the Iroquois terri¬
tories by the French, large fleets of these canoes
were formed for the conveyance of troops and pro¬
visions. With careful usage they would last seve¬
ral years.
Our Indian population have been long in the habit
of manufacturing sugar from the maple. Whether
they learned the art from us, or we received it
from them, is uncertain. One evidence, at least, of
its antiquity among them, is to be found in one of
their ancient religious festivals, instituted to the
maple, and called the Maple dance. The sap-tub
is a very neat contrivance, and surpasses all other
INCIDENT TO THE LEAGtJK
[Book III.
articles of tliis descriptiou. Our farmers may safely
borrow, in tliis one particular, and w*itb profit sub¬
stitute tbis Indian invention for the rough and
wasteful one of their own contrivance.
A strip of barlv about three feet in length by two
in width, makes the tub. The rough baih; is left
upon the bottom and sides. At the point where
the bark is to be turned up to form the ends, the
outer bark is removed ; the inner rind is then
turned up, gathered together in small folds at the
top, and tied around with a splint. It is then ready
for use, and will last several seasons. Aside from
the natural fact that the sap would be quite at home
in the bark tub, and its flavor preserved untainted,
it is more dm’able and capacious than the wooden
one, and more readily made.
The Senecas use three varieties of corn : the
White, {O-nOro’-ga-ant^ the Red, {Tic'-ne^ and
the White Flint, {Horgo' -wd?) Corn is, and always
has been, their staple article of food. AATien ready
to be harvested, they pick the ears, strip down the
husks, and braid them together in bunches, with
about twenty ears in each. They are then hung up
ready for use. The white flint ripens first, and is
the favorite corn for hommony ; the red next, and
is used principally for charring and drying; the
white last, and is the corn most esteemed by the In¬
dians. It is used for bread, and supplies the same
place with them that wheat does with us. They
shell their corn by hand, and pound it into flour in
wooden mortars. In two hours from the time the
diameter. Pounder, 4 feet in length.
3Y2 incident to the league. [Book IIL
corn is taken from tlie ear it is ready to eat, in the
form of unleavened bread. It is bulled in the first
instance, by boiling in ashes and water ; after the
skin is thus removed from each kernel, it is thor¬
oughly washed, and pounded into flour or meal in
a mortar, of which a representation will be found
above. Having been passed through a sieve basket,
to remove the chit and coarser grains, it is made into
loaves or cakes about an inch in thickness, and six
inches in diameter ; which are cooked by boiling
them in water. Upon bread of this description, and
upon the fruits of the chase, the Indian has princi¬
pally subsisted from time immemorial.
The practice of charring corn is of great antiqui¬
ty among the red races. In this condition it is
preserved for years without injury. Caches or pits
of charred corn have been found in various parts of
the country. The Iroquois were in the habit of
charring corn to preserve it for domestic use. The
Senecas stiU do the same. For this use the red corn
is preferred. When green the corn is picked, and
roasted in the field before a long fii’e, the ears being
set up on end in a row. It is not charred or black¬
ened entirely, but roasted sufficiently to dry up the
moisture in each kernel. The corn is then shelled
and dried in the sun. In this state it is chiefly used
by hunting parties, and for subsistence on distant
excursions. Its bulk and weight having been di¬
minished about half by the two processes, its trans¬
portation became less burdensome. The red races
seldom formed magazines of grain to guard against
Ch. L]
distant wants. It is probable, therefore, that these
pits of charred corn owe their origin to the sudden
flight of the inhabitants, who buried their dried corn
because they could not remove it, rather than to a
desire to provide against a failure of the harvest.
There was another method of curing corn in its
green state, quite as prevalent as the former. The
corn was shaved off into small particles, and having
been baked over the fire in pans or earthen dishes,
it was then dried in the sun. In this condition it
was preserved for winter use.
A favorite article of subsistence was prepared
from the charred corn. It was parched a second
time, after which, having been mixed with about a
third part of maple sugar, it was pounded into a
fine flour. This was carried in the bear-skin pocket
of the hunter, and upon it alone he subsisted for
days together.
This noble grain, one of the gifts of the Indian
to the world, is destined, eventually, to become one
of the staple articles of human consumption. More
than half of our republic lies within the embrace
of the tributaries of the Mississippi. Upon their
banks are the corn-growing districts of the country;
and there, also, at no distant day, will be seated the
millions of our race. Experience demonstrates that
no people can rely wholly upon exchanges for the
substance of their bread-stuffe, but that they must
look chiefly to the soil they cultivate. This law of
production and consumption is destined to intro¬
duce the gradual use of corn flour, as a partial substi-
moroENT TO THE LEA8UE.
[Book IIL
tute at least, for its superior rival, in those districts
where it is the natural product of the soil. In the
southern portions of our country this principle is
already attested, by the fact that corn bread enters
as lai’gely into human consumption as wheaten.
Next to wheat, this grain, perhaps, contains the
lai’gest amount of nutriment. It is the cheapest
and surest of all the grains to cultivate ; and is, also,
the cheapest article of subsistence known among
men. Although wheat can be cultivated in nearly
all the sections of the country; although its pro¬
duction can be increased to an unlimited degree by
a higher agriculture ; we have yet great reason to
be thankful for this secondary grain, whose repro¬
ductive energy is so unmeasured as to secure our
entire race, through aU coming time, against the
dangers of scarcity, or the pressm^e of want.
Tobacco is another gift of the Indian to the
world ; but a gift, it must be admitted, of question¬
able utility. We call both corn and tobacco the
legacy of the red man ; as these indigenous plants,
but for his nurture and culture through so many
ages, might have perished, like other varieties of
the fruite of the earth. Many of our choicest fruits
owe their origin to vegetable combinations entirely
fortuitous. They spring up spontaneously, flourish
for a season, and become extinct, but for the watch-
Ch. I]
fill care of man. ISTatm’e literally pours fortli her
vegetable Tvealth, and buries beneath her advancing
exuberance the products of the past. But few of
the fruits and plants and flowers of the ancient
world, have come down to us unchanged ; and still
other plants, perhaps, have perished, unknown, in
the openings of the forest, which contained within
their shrivelled and stinted foliage, the germ of
some fruit, or grain, or plant, which might have
nourished or clothed the whole human family. We
may therefore, perchance, owe a debt to the Indian,
in these particulars, beyond our utmost acknowl¬
edgments.
The Senecas still cultivate tobacco. Its name sig¬
nifies “ The only Tohobcco^'' because they considered
this vai'iety superior to all others. It is raised from
the seed, which is sown or planted in the spring,
and requires but little cultivation. The leaves are
picked early in the fall, when their color first
changes with the frost, and when dried are ready
for use. After the first year it grows spontaneously,
from the seed shed by the plant when fully ripen¬
ed. If the plants become too thick, which is fre¬
quently the case, from their vigorous growth, it be¬
comes necessary to thin them out, as the leaves di¬
minish in size with their increase in number. This
tobacco is used exclusively for smoking. The cus¬
tom of chewing the article appears to have been de¬
rived from us. Although this tobacco is exceedingly
mdd, they mingle with it the leaves of the sumac,
to diminish its stimulating properties. The sumac
INCIDEM’ TO THE LEAGUK
[Book III
has been used by the Indian to temper tobacco
from time immemorial.
Several varieties of the bean and of the squash
were also cultivated by the Iroquois, and were indi¬
genous in the American soil. They regarded the
corn, the bean, and the squash as the special gift of
the Great Spirit, and associated them together under
the name of the Three Sisters. They also used the
ground-nut {apios Uiherosa^ as a species of potato,
gathering it in its wild state.
ga-weh'-ga, or snow-shoe.
2 feet 10 incbes. .
The snow-shoe is an Indian invention. Upon the
deep snows which accumulate in the forest, it would
be nearly impossible to travel without them. They
were used in the hunt, and in warlike expeditions
undertaken in the season of winter.
The snow-shoe is nearly three feet in length, by
about sixteen inches in width. A rim of hickory,
bent round with an arching fr’ont, and brought to a
point at the heel, constituted the frame, with the
Ch. L]
3'7'r
addition of cross pieces to determine its spread.
Within the area, with the exception of an opening
for the toe, was woven a net-work of deer strings,
with interstices about an inch square. The ball of
the foot was lashed at the edge of this opening with
thongs, which passed around the heel for the sup¬
port of the foot. The heel was left free to work up
and down, and the opening was designed to allow the
toe of the foot to descend below the surface of the
shoe, as the heel is raised in the act of walking. It
is a very simple invention, but exactly adapted for
its uses. A person familiar with the snow-shoe can
walk as rapidly upon the snow, as without it upon
the ground. The Senecas affirm that they can walk
fifty miles per day upon the snow-shoe, and with
much greater rapidity than without it, in conse¬
quence of the length and uniformity of the step.
In the bear-hunt, especially, it is of the greatest
service, as the hunter can speedily overtake the
bear, who, breaking through the crust, is enabled
to move but slowly.
This is an Indian invention, but came originally
from the west. It closely resembles the saddle of
the native Mexicans in its general plan, but its pom¬
mel is not as high, and its side-pieces are longer. It
is still used among the Iroquois, and among the In¬
dian tribes of the west. The frame is made of four
pieces of wood, firmly set together, over which is a
[Book III.
covering of raw Mde. Tlie side-pieces are about
eighteen inches in length, six in width, and about
an inch in thickness, at the centre, but terminating
in a sharp edge above and below. In front the
pommel rises about five inches above the side-pieces.
It is made of a stick having a natural fork, which
is so adjusted as to embrace the side-pieces, and de¬
termine the spread of the saddle. Another piece,
in the same manner, embraced the side-pieces at
the opposite end, rising several inches above, and
Ch. I.]
descending nearly to their lower edges. These
side-pieces at the top are about three inches apart,
leaving a space for the back-bone of the horse.
The fastenings of the saddle, including those of the
stirrup, were originally of ropes, made of buffalo’s
hair. Triangular stirrups of wood completed the
trappings of the saddle. As the Iroquois seldom
made use of the Indian horse, the saddle with them
was rather an accidental, than a usual article. The
specimen above represented is of Seneca manufac¬
ture.
ga-ga-an-'da, or air-gun ; and GA-NO', or arrow.
Air-gun, 6 feet. Arrow, 2 feet.
The air-gun is claimed as an Indian invention.
Et is a simple tube or barrel, about six feet in length,
and an inch in diameter, and having a half-inch
bore. It is made of alder, and also of other wood,
which is bored by some artificial contrivance. A
very slender arrow, about two feet in length, with
a sharp point, is the missile. Upon the foot of the
arrow, the down or fioss of the thistle is fastened on
entire, with sinew. This down is soft and yielding,
and when the arrow is placed in the barrel, fills it
air-tight. The arrow is then discharged by blow¬
ing. It is used for bird-shooting.
[Book HL
YaV-DA-WAS-TA, or INDIAN FLUTE.
Tliis instrument is unlike any known among us,
but it clearly resembles tbe clarionet. Its name
signifies “ a blow pipe.” It is usually made of red
cedar, is about eighteen inches in length, and above
an inch in diameter. The finger holes, six in num¬
ber, are equidistant. Between them and the mouth¬
piece, which is at the end, is the whistle, contrived
much upon the same principle as the common whis¬
tle. It makes six consecutive notes, from the lowest,
on a rising scale. The seventh note is wanting, but
the three or four next above are regularly made.
This is the whole compass of the instrument. As
played by the Indians, it affords a species of wild
and plaintive music. It is claimed as an Indian in¬
vention.
tun-ga'-sa, or tobacco pouch.
The tobacco pouch is made of the skin of some
small animal, which is taken off entire. It was an¬
ciently an indispensable article, and was worn in the
gii'dle. They were usually made of white weasel,
mink, squirrel, and fisher skin.
Ch. I]
da-ya-ya-da-ga'-nea-ta.
This is an Indian invention, and of great antiquity.
Its rudeness may excite a smile, in this day of lucifer
matches, but yet the step backward to the steel and
flint is about the same, as from the latter to the
contrivance in question. Not knowing the use of
metals or of chemicals, it was the only method of
creating fire known to the red man. It consisted
of an upright shaft, about four feet in length, and
an inch in diameter, with a small wheel set upon
the lower part, to give it momentum. In a notch
at the top of the shaft was set a string, attached to
a bow about three feet in length. The lower point
IJfCEDENT TO THE LEAGtE.
[Book III
rested upon a block of dry wood, near wMcb are
placed small pieces of punk. When ready to nse,
the string is fii-st coiled around the shaft, by turning
it with the hand. The bow is then pulled down¬
wards, thus uncoiling the string, and reTolving the
shaft towards the left. By the momentum given to
the wheel, the string is again coiled up in a reverse
manner, and the bow again dravm up. The bow is
again pulled downwards, and the revolution of the
shaft reversed, uncoiling the string, and recoding it
as before. This ^ternate revolution of the shaft is
continued, until sparks are emitted from the point
where it rests upon the piece of dry wood below.
Sparks are produced in a few moments by the in¬
tensity of the friction, and ignite the punk, which
speedily famish^ a fire.
O-KO-JiKA GOS-Ha'-DA, OB. COaN-HITSK SALT BOTTLE.
In the art of basket-work, in aU its varieties, the
In/iiATi women also excel. Their baskets are made
with a neatness, ingenuity and simplicity, which de-
Ch. I]
serve tlie highest praise. Splint is the chief mate¬
rial, but they likewise use a species of flag, and also
corn-husks. Among these various patterns, which
are as diversified as convenience or ingenuity could
suggest, the most perfectly finished is the sieve bas¬
ket. It is designed for sifting corn meal to remove
the chit, and coarser particles, after the corn has been
pounded into flour. The bottom of the basket is
wove in such fine checks as to answer very perfectly
all the ends of the wire sieve. Another variety of
open basket was made of corn-husks and flags, very
closely and ingeniously braided. In their domestic
economy, the basket answered a multitude of pur¬
poses. Bottles for salt were made of corn-husks in
the forms represented in the figures.
Their wooden implements were often elaborately
carved. Those upon which the most labor was expen¬
ded were the ladles, Ah-do-guaJ -sa^ of various sizes,
used for eating hommony and soup. They were
their substitute for the spoon, and hence every In¬
dian family was supplied with a number. The end
of the handle was usually surmounted with the fig¬
ure of an animal, as a squirrel, a hawk, or a beaver,
some of them with a human figure in a sitting pos¬
ture, others with a group of such figures in various
attitudes, as those of wrestling or embracing.
These figures are carved with considerable skill and
correctness of proportion. Upon the hommony-
stirrer. Got' -go-7ie-os-hd\ similar ornaments were
bestowed. Bowls, pitchers and other vessels of
knot are common in Indian families, and are worked
[Book IIL
out with, great labor and care. In ancient times,
the aged and infirm were wont to assist themselves
in walking with a simple staff, but in later times the
cane, AhrdaJ -dis-ha^ has been substituted. Like
their other utensils of wood, the modern cane is
elaborately carved.
GA-KA'-AH, OE SKIET. — See Plate, page 384,
The modern female costume of the Iroquois is
both striking and graceful. Some of them would
excite admiration by the exactness of their adjust¬
ment and the delicacy, even brilliancy of their bead-
work embroidery. They use, to this day, the same
articles of apparel in form and fashion, as in ancient
times, but they have substituted materials of for¬
eign manufacture. The porcupine quill has given
place to the bead, and the skins of animals to the
cotton fabric and the broadcloth. Much taste is
exhibited in the bead-work, which is so conspicuous
in the female costume. The colors are blended har¬
moniously, and the patterns are ingeniously devised
and skilfully executed. It is sufficiently evident,
from the specimens of their handiwork, that the In¬
dian female, can be taught to excel with the needle.
The GorM'-ah^ or Skirt, of one of which the plate
is an accurate copy, is usually of blue broadcloth,
and elaborately embroidered with bead-work. It
requires two yards of cloth, which is worn with the
selvedge at the top and bottom ; the skirt being se¬
cured about the waist, and descending nearly to the
Ch. L]
moccason. Around the lower edge, and part way
up the centre in front, it is tastefully and beauti¬
fully embroidered. In one of the angles a figure is
worked representing a tree or flower. The cloth
skirt is universally worn among the present Iro¬
quois, but they are not usually as richly embroid¬
ered, or of as fine material as the one represented in
the plate. This is of Seneca workmanship, and is a
rare specimen of Indian needlework.
GISE'-HA, or PANTALETTE. — See Plate, page 385.
This article of female apparel is also universal¬
ly worn. It is usually made of red broadcloth, and
ornamented with a border of bead-work around the
lower edge, and also part way up the side at the
point which becomes the front of the pantalette.
It is secured above the knee, and falls down upon
the moccason. In ancient times the Gise-ha Avas
made of deer-skin and embroidered with porcupine
quill work. As the moccason is elsewhere described,
nothing further need be said in relation to it as a
part of the female costume.
AH-DE-A'-DA-WE-SA, OR OVER-DRESS.— See Plate, page 386.
The over-dress is usually of muslin or calico of
the highest colors. It is loosely adjusted to the per¬
son, gathered slightly at the waist, and falls part
way down the skirt. Around' the lower edge is a
narrow border of bead- work. In front it is generally
[Book III
buttoned witli silver broaches, arranged as repre¬
sented in the plate. They are usually larger in size,
and arranged in parallel rows, as represented in the
female costume in the frontispiece. The Indian fe¬
male delights in a profusion of silver ornaments,
consisting of silver broaches of various patterns and
sizes, from those which are six inches in diameter,
and worth as many dollars, down to those of the
smallest size, valued at a sixpence. Silver ear-rings
and finger-rings of various designs, silver beads, hat
bands and crosses, are also found in their parapher¬
nalia. These crosses, relics of Jesuit influence, are
frequently eight inches in length, of solid silver, and
very valuable, but they are looked upon by them
simply in the light of ornaments.
This indispensable and graceful garment is of
blue or green broadcloth, of which it requires two
yards. It falls from the head or neck in natural
folds the width of the cloth, as the selvedges are at
the top and bottom, and it is gathered round the
person like a shawl. It is worn very gracefully by
the Indian female, and makes a becoming article of
apparel.
By some singular impulse of fancy, the fur hat
has been appropriated by the women as a part of
the female costume, until among the modern Iro¬
quois it is more common to see this part of the
white man’s apparel upon the head of the Indian
AH-DE-A-DA-WE-SA or OVER-DRESS.
Ch. I]
female tlian upon tliat of tlie warrior. Hat bands
of silver, or of broacbes strung together, or of long
silver beads, are indispensable ornaments on public
occasions. Sometimes, but rarely, clusters of feath¬
ers are attached to the hat.
6A'-TE-AS-HA', OR KECKLACE. — See Plate, page 226.
The necklace is made of silver and wampum
beads, and has a silver cross suspended. The beads
usually worn by Indian women are of common
glass. In ancient times it was customary to wear
necklaces of the teeth of animals, but such barba¬
rous ornaments were long since repudiated by the
Iroquois. A species of shoulder ornament in the
nature of a necklace made of a fragrant marsh grass,
called by the Senecas Qora-o' -targes^ is very gene¬
rally worn. Several strands or cords are braided
from this grass, of the requisite length, and tied into
one string. At intervals of three or four inches,
small round discs, made of the same material, some¬
times covered upon the upper face with bead-work,
are attached. It thus makes a conspicuous orna¬
ment, and emits an agreeable odor, furnishing a sub¬
stitute for perfumery. Wampum beads are rarely
worn, as they are scarce and held at high rates.
These beads are used chiefly for religious purposes,
and to preserve laws and treaties. They are made
of the conch shell, which yields both a white and a
purple bead, the former of which is used for reli¬
gious, and the latter for political purposes. A fuU
[Book III.
string of wampum is usually three feet long, and con¬
tains a dozen or more strands. In ancient times, six
of these strands was the value of a life, the amount
paid in condonation for a murder. When sold,
they were counted and reckoned at half a cent a
head. Wampum belts were made by covering one
side of a deer-skin belt with these beads, arranged
after various devices, and with most laborious skill.
As a belt fom* or five feet long by fom’ inches wide
would requii’e several thousands of these beads, they
were estimated at a great price.
ont-wis'-da-ga-dust-ha', or silver medal.
The government has long been in the habit of
presenting silver medals to the chiefs of the various
Indian tribes at the formation of treaties, and on
the occasion of their visit to the seat of govern¬
ment. These medals are held in the highest esti¬
mation. Red Jacket, Com Planter, Farmers
J v'l/'f Ai
y®”'«!»* I
^MkA
ilWfl
?Si^V 5L..-N.5
i$w
ga-ya-ah or work bag
Ch. I.]
Brother, and several other distinguished Seneca
chiefs have received medals of this description.
Washington presented a medal to Ked Jacket in
1'792. It is an elliptical plate of silver, surrounded
by a rim, as represented in the figure, and is about
six inches in its greatest diameter. On each side it
is engraved with various devices. The medal is
now worn by Sose-ha'-wd^ (Johnson,) a Seneca
chief.
Medals of sea-shell, inlaid with silver, as repre^
sented in the figure, were also worn suspended from
the neck as personal ornaments. They were made
of the conch-shell, and were highly valued.
A few plates further to illustrate the handiwork
of the Indian female in bead-work are introduced
at the end of this chapter. The figures themselves
will dispense with the necessity of any description,
although they should be colored to give a full im¬
pression of their character. The patient industry
of the Indian female is quite remarkable, when seen
[Book HI*
in contrast with, the impatience of labor in the war¬
rior himself. In the work of them reclamation and
gradnal induction into mdustrial pumuits, this fact
fta-nishes no small degree of encouragement.
GA-OSE’-HA; OR, BABY-FRAMR — See Plate, page 390.
This is likewise an Indian invention. It appears
to have been designed rather as a convenience to
the Indian mother for the transportation of her in¬
fant, than, as has generally been supposed, to secure
an erect figure. The frame is about two feet in
length, by about fourteen inches in width, with a
carved foot-board at the small end, and a hoop or
bow at the head, arching over at right angles.
After being enclosed in a blanket, the infant is
lashed upon the frame with belts of bead-work,
which firmly secure and cover its person, with the
exception of the face. A separate article for cover-
inof the face is then drawn over the bow, and the
child is wholly protected. When carried, the bur¬
den-strap attached to the frame is placed around the
forehead of the mother, and the G^osef-M upon her
back. This frame is often elaborately carved, and
its ornaments are of the choicest description. When
cultivating the maize, or engaged in any out-door
occupation, the GarOse*-h& is hung upon a limb of
the nearest tree, and left to swing in the breeze.
The patience and quiet of the Indian child in this
close confinement are quite remarkable. It will hang
Ch. L]
thus suspended for hours, without uttering a com¬
plaint.
Many other articles might he introduced further
to illustrate the social life of the Iroquois, did space
permit, hut sufficient has heen given to exhibit the
general character of their fabrics, implements and
utensils. A portion of them, which appeared par¬
ticularly calculated to exhibit their artisan intellect,
have been noticed minutely, for it is in this view
that they are chiefly interesting.
Such is the diffusion of Indian arts and Indian
inventions among the red races, that it is impossible
to ascertain with what nation or tribe they in fact
originated. Many of them were common to all,
from Maine to Oregon, and from the St. Lawrence
to the peninsula of Florida. To this day Indian
life is about the same over the whole republic. If
we wished to discover the inventions of the Iro¬
quois, we might expect to find them as well among
the Sioux of the upper Mississippi, as among the de¬
scendants of the Iroquois themselves. It is for this
reason, that in describing the fabrics which illus¬
trate the era of Indian occupation, we should take
in the whole range of Indian life, from the wild
tribes dwelling in the seclusions of Oregon, to the
present semi-agricultural Iroquois who reside among
ourselves. They have passed through all the inter¬
mediate stages, from extreme rudeness to compara¬
tive civilization. If we wish to connect the fab¬
rics of the former with those of our own primitive
inhabitants, we may find that connection in the fact.
[Book IIL
tliat similar implements and similar fabrics, at no
remote period, were in the bands, and of the manu¬
facture of the Iroquois themselves. Many of the
relics disentombed from the soil of Xew York re¬
late back to the period of the Mound Builders of
the west, and belong to a race of men and an age
which have passed beyond the ken of Indian tradi¬
tion. Our first Indian epoch is thus connected with
that of the ^lound Builders. In the same manner,
the fabrics of the Boquois are intimately connected
with those of all the tribes now resident within the
republic. One system of trails belted the whole
face of the territory from the Atlantic to the Pa¬
cific ; and the intercoui’se between the multitude of
nations who dwelt within these boundless domains
was constant, and much more extensive than has
ever been supposed. If any one, therefore, deshes
a picture of Iroquois life before Hendrick Hudson
sailed up the river upon whose banks rested the
easteni end of their “ Long House,” he should look
for it in Gatlin’s Scenes at the skiids of the Eocky
Mountains. There ai’e diversities, it is true, but In¬
dian hfe is essentially the same.
In the fabrics of the modern Iroquois, there is
much to inspire confidence in their teachableness in
the useful aids. When their minds are unfolded by
education, and their attention is attracted by habit
to agricultural pursuits, as has ah'eady become the
case, to some extent, there is great promise that a
portion, at least, of this gifted race will be reclaimed,
and raised, eventually, to a citizenship among our-
e e«*>e‘>ee^sM«*-
BWjMi
/"•/w 51
5s»¥'€rs %i
»5#efee'ree??»ee5?*^^« '
^«!e§5
Ch. L] IMPROVEMENT OF THE IROQUOIS. 393
selves. It would be a grateful spectacle, yet to be¬
hold the children of our primeval forests cultivating
the fields, over which their fathers roamed in sylvan
mdependence.
Book III, Chapter II
Language of the Iroquois. — Alphabet. — The Noun. — Adjective.
— Comparison. — Article. — Adverb. — Preposition. — • Species of
Declension. — The Verb. — Fulness of Conjugation. — Formation
OF Sentences. — The Lord’s Prayer.
The language of the Iroquois, like all unwritten
languages, is imperfect in its construction, and
scarcely admits of comparison, except on general
principles, with those which have been systematized
and perfected. It would doubtless be characterized
by the schoolman as a barbarous jargon, although
entitled to some portion of the indulgence which is
due to all primitive or uncompounded languages, in
the early stages of their formation. To us, how¬
ever, there is an interest incident to these dialects,
'which rises above mere literary curiosity. Through
all generations, their language 'wiU continue to be
spoken in our geographical terms: “their names
are on our waters, we may not wash them out.”
The face of nature, indeed, changes its appearance,
mutat teiTa vices^ but its landmarks remain essen¬
tially the same. Within our borders, the Iroquois
have written them over with such a permanent im¬
print, that to the most distant ages will our hdls
and vales and ever-flowing rivers speak
“ Their dialect of yore.”
' NAMES.
Albany.
Skarneh'-ta-de.
Ska'-na-ta-de.
Ska-na'-ta-de.
Skaw-na-taw'-te.
Ska-na'-tat.
Ska'-nek-ta'-de.
Beyond tke Openings.
, Utica.
Nun-da-da'-sis.
De-o -nun-da-da'-sis.
Asone-da-da'-sis.
Ya-nun-na'-rats.
Y a-nun-da-da'-sis.
Ya-none-dii'-sis.
Around tke Hill.
Auburn.
Dwas-co'.
AYas'-co.
Os'-co.
Ak'-sko.
O-was'-co.
Was'-co.
A Floating Bridge.
Geneva.
Ga-uun-da-sa'-ga.
Ga-na-da-sa'-ga,
Ga-na-da-sa'-ga.
O-ta-na-sa'-ga.
Ga-na-da'-sage.
Ga-na-da-sage'.
A New Settlement Village.
Canandaigua.
Ga-nun-dA'-gwa.
Ga-na-da'-gwa.
Ca-na-da'-qua.
Ca'-ta-na-ra'-qua.
Ga-na-da-lo'-qua.
Ga-na-ta-la'-qua.
A Place selected for a Settle-
Kocbester.
Ga-sko'-sa-go.
Ga-sko-sa'-go.
Ga-sko'-sa-go'-wa.
G a-skuk'-sa-kef.
Ga-sko-sa'-go.
Ga-skun-sa'-go.
Under tke Falls. [ment.
Tonawanda.
Ta'-nA-wun-da.
Ta-no-wun'-da.
Ta-no-wa'<la.
Ta'-na-wii-tek.
Ta'-na-want.
Ta-na-wa'-dek.
Swift Water.
Buffalo.
Do-sho'-weh.
De-o-tro'-wek.
De-o-sa'-wek.
Ne-o-tkro'-ra.
De-ose'-lole.
De-o-kose-lole'.
Splitting tke Fork.
Alagara Eiver.
Ne-ak'-ga.
O-ne-a'-ga.
Ne-ak'-ga.
O-ne-a'-cai’s.
O-ne-a'-gale.
O-ne-a-ga'-ra.
At tke Neck. (Supposed.)
Honeoye Lake.
ria-ne-a'-yeli.
Hii-ne-a'-ka.
Ha-ne-a'-ya.
Tii-ne-a'-yek.
Hii-ne-a'-e.
Ha-ne-a'-yuk.
A Finger Lying.
Hemlock Lake.
O-nek'-da.
De-o-nek'-da-ek.
O-iiA'-dA.
O-nuk'-dii.
U-nun'-da.
O-no'-da.
A Hemlock.
1 Skaneateles Lake.
Ska'-ne-o'-dice.
Ska-ne-a'-dice.
Ska-ne-o'-dice.
Skon-yat-e'-les.
Ska'-ne-o-da'-lis.
Ska'-ne-a'-da-lis.
Long Lake.
Ghautauque Lake.
Cka-dii'-gwek.
Cka-da'-qua.
Cha-da'-qua.
Cka-ta'-qua.
Ja-da'-qua.
Place wkere one was lost.
Waterloo.
Sa'-yase.
Skoi'-yase.
Sa'-yase.
Ska'-yase.
Sko-ne'-ase.
Ska'-yase.
Place of YTiortleberries.
Herkimer.
Da-ya-o'-gek.
Da-a-o'-ga.
Te-o-gun'.
Ta-ugk'-ka.
Te-a'-6ge.
Te-yoge'-ga.
At tke Forks.
Coniocton Eiver.
Ga-kA'-to.
Ga-kA'-tro.
Ga-ka'-to.
Ga-nak'-to.
Ga-ka'-to.
A Log in tke Water.
Oriskany Creek.
O-kis'-kek.
O-kis'-ka.
O-kis'-ka.
Ose-kase'-kek.
Ole-kisk'.
Ole-kis'-ka.
Place of Nettles.
Oswego.
Swa-gek'.
Swa-gek'.
Swa-gek'.
O-swa'-gek.
O-swage'-ga.
O-swa'-go.
Flowing out.
Canajobarie.
Ca-na'-jo-ka.
Ca-na-jo-ka'-ga.
Can-a-jo'-kar.
Ga-na-j o-ka-la'-que '
Ga-na-j o-kar '-la.
Wasking tke Basin.
Hontezuma.
Te-ka'-j ik-ka'-do.
T’car-jik-ka'-do.
Te-ska-jik-ka'-do.
Ga-jik-ka'-no. j
Ga-j ik-ka'-do.
Place of Salt.
Schenectady.
Ho-no'-A-go-nek'.
Xo-wa-go'-na.
jSTa-a-ra-gwek'-na. ^
O-no-al-i'-gone.
O-no-a-la-gon'-na.
Pained in tke Head.
Black Eiver.
Garkun'-go-wa.
Ga-kun-go'-wa.
Ka-ku-wa-go'-na.
Ka-skii-ka'-ka.
Ka-ku-a'-go.
Ga-sku-ka'-go.
Great Eiver.
Oneida Castle.
Ga-no'-a-o-ka.
Ga-no-a-o'-a.
Ga-no-wi'-ka.
Ka-no-wa-no'-kate. j
Ga-no-wa'-lo-kale.
Ga'-no-w'A-l o-kar '-la.
Head on a Pole.
Allegany Eiver.
O-kee'-yo.
O-kee'-yo.
O-kee'-yu.
O-kee'-yu. i
0-kee'.
O-kee'-yo.
'Tke Beautiful Eiver.
Ch. II.] LANGUAGE OF THE IROQUOIS. 395
The Hodenosaunee were eminently fortunate in
engrafting their names upon the features of nature,
if they were desirous of a living remembrance. No
one can turn to the lake, or river, or streamlet, to
which they have bequeathed an appellation, with¬
out confessing that the Indian has perpetuated him¬
self by a monument more eloquent and imperishable
than could be fabricated by human hands.
From considerations of this description, there
arises a sufficient interest in the language of our
predecessors, to invite an inquiry into its principal
features.
Of the six dialects in which it is now spoken, the
Mohawk and Oneida have a close resemblance to
each other; the Cayuga and Seneca the same;
while the Onondaga and Tuscarora are not only un¬
like each other, but are also distinguished from the
other four by strong dialectical differences. In the
estimation of the Iroquois, the Onondaga dialect is
the most finished and majestic, and the Oneida the
least vigorous in its expressions ; but to the American
ear, the former is harsh and pointed, and the latter
is liquid, harmonious, and musical. The Tuscarora
is admitted to be a dialect of the Iroquois language,
but it has not such a close affinity to either of the
remaining five, as the latter have to each other. In
conversation they are all able to understand each
other with readiness, unless words intervene which
have been naturalized into one of their dialects
from foreign languages. A comparison of these di¬
alects will be found in the table.
[Book III.
The alphabet common to the six dialects consists
of nineteen letters : A, C, D, E, Gr, H, I, J, K, N,
O, Q, E, S, T, U, W, X and Y. In addition to
several elementary sounds which require a com¬
bination of letters, the Senecas occasionally employ
the sound of Z ; but it is so closely allied with the
sound of S, as not to be distinguishable, except by
careful observation. The Mohawks and Oneidas use
the liquid L, and the Tuscaroras occasionally employ
the sound of F ; but these letters are not common
to aU the dialects. It has been customary to ex¬
clude the hquid R from the Iroquois alphabet, as
not common to the several dialects, but this is
clearly erroneous. Although it is principally found
in the Mohawk, Seneca, and Cayuga, it is yet occa¬
sionally discovered in each of the others. Some of
the ancient writers affirmed that this letter was not
to be found in the Oneida tongue, and that the
word Rebecca, for example, would be pronounced,
by an Oneida, Lequecca. It is possible that the
presence of the consonant 5, which is unknown in
their language, may have rendered the substitution
of L necessary to effect the whole pronunciation ;
but it is certain that in some of their words the R
is found, as, for example, in the name of Schoharie
creek, O-slco'-harl. This letter is found in the Onon¬
daga dialect, in the same geographical name, which,
in the latter, is Sko'-Tiar. In the Tuscarora, this
letter is frequently found, as, for instance, in the
name of Buffalo, Ne-o-tJiro'-rd^ and of Niagara, O-ne-
df-cars.
Ch. II.]
The number of their elementary sounds, as at
present ascertained, is below that of the English
language, but twenty-three having been determined
in the Seneca tongue, while in the former it is well
known that there are thirty-eight. A more critical
analysis would doubtless discover additional sounds,
as in the guttural and nasal tones they take a wider
range than the English voice.
In illustrating the parts of speech by a cursory
examination, and in elucidating the declensions and
conjugations, the words introduced as specimens
will be taken from the Seneca language.
It is supposed by those who have inquired philo¬
sophically into the formation of language, that the
noun substantive would be the first part of speech
in the order of origination, inasmuch as the objects
in nature must be named, and perhaps classed, be¬
fore relations between them are suggested, or actions
concerning them are expressed. Much of the beauty
of a language depends upon this part of speech.
Nouns of one syllable are rarely, if ever, found in
either of the dialects 5 those of two syllables are
not very numerous; those of three and four syllables
embrace the great mass of words which belong to
this part of speech. As specimens of the language,
the following examples are given :
An-da',
Day.
Ga-ee',
Tree.
So-a',
Night.
Ha-ace',
Panther.
Ga-o',
Wind.
Je-yeh',
Dog.
Gus-no',
Bark.
Gen-joh',
Fish.
398 INCIDENT TO THE LEAGUE. [Book IIL
KOtJNS OF THREE SYLLABLES.
Ah-wa'-o,
Rose.
O-o'-za,
Bass-wood.
O-gis'-ta,
Eire.
0-ane'^da,
Shrub.
O-we'-za,
Ice.
O-na'-ta,
Leaf.
O-dus'-hote,
A spring.
GAha'-neh,
Summer.
Ga-ha'-da,
Forest.
O-g^'-ah,
Evening.
O-eke'-ta,
Thistle.
Ga-o'-wo,
Canoe.
O-na-gA-nose,
Water.
Ong-wa-o'-weh,
Indian.
Ga-a-nun'-da,
Mountain.
GAga-neas'-heh,
Knife.
Ga-gwe-dake '-neh,
Spring.
O-gwen-nis'-ha,
Copper.
Sa-da'-che'-ah,
Morning.
Ah-ta-gwen'-da,
Flint.
Ga-a-o'-da,
Gun.
Sa-da'-wa-aun-teh,
Midnight.
So-a'-kAga-gwa,
Moon.
O-wis'-ta-no-o,
Silver.
Ga-ne-o'-us-heh,
Iron.
An-da'-ka-ga-gwa,
Sun.
O-da'-wa-an-do,
otter.
In most, iT not aU languages, the idea of singular
and plural is conveyed by an inflection of the word
itself, or by some addition. To illustrate from the
language under consideration, which forms the plural
in several ways by inflection, the subjoined exam¬
ples are introduced.
Singular.
Plural.
O-on'-dote,
A tree.
O-on-do'-do,
Trees.
Ga-no'-sote,
A house.
Ga-no-so'-do,
Houses.
Ga-ne-o'-wa-o,
A brook.
Ga-ne-o-wa-o' -neo,
Brooks.
Je-da’-o,
A bird.
Je-da-o'-suh-uh,
Birds.
O-an'-nuh,
A pole.
O-an'-nuh-suh,
Poles,
Ga-hun'-da,
A creek.
Ga-hun-da'-neo,
Creeks.
There are several other terminations by which
the plm’al is indicated.
It is said that the dual number originated in the
difliculty of inventing the numerals, one, two, three,
Ch. n.]
<fec., which are in themselves extremely abstract
conceptions. The ideas of one^ two and more^
which correspond with singular, dual and plural,
would be far more easily formed in the mind, than
the idea of number in general; and the most sim¬
ple mode of expressing them would be by a va¬
riation of the word itself. Hence in the Hebrew
and Greek, which are original or uncompounded
languages, in the general sense, the dual is found to
exist, while in the Latin, and in modern languages,
which are compounds, and were formed subsequent
to the invention of numerals, the dual number is
discarded. The Iroquois, so far as we know, is an
original and uncompounded language, and it has
the dual number, both in its verbs and nouns.
Gender was very happily indicated in the Latin
and Greek by final letters or terminations. In the
Enghsh, by giving up the ancient declensions, this
mode of designating gender was also laid aside, and
two or three modes substituted ; thus, that of vary¬
ing the word itself, as tiger, tigress, of giving the
same animal names entirely different, as buck and
doe, and more frequently still that of prefixing
words which signify male and female. The Iroquois
nouns have three genders, which are indicated in
the manner last mentioned. Unlike the provisions
of other languages, all inanimate objects, without
distinction, were placed in the neuter gender.
In some respects the adjective would be a simple
part of speech to invent, as quality is an object of
external sense, and is always in concrete with the
[Book IH.
subject. But to discover and adopt a classification,
founded upon tbe similitudes of objects, would be
more difS-Cult, since both generalization and abstrac¬
tion would be required. The dialects of the Ho-de~n(h
saur-nee ajipear to be amply furnished with this part
of speech, on which so much of the beauty of a lan¬
guage is known to depend, to express nearly every
shade of quality in objects. Comparison, of which
they have the three degrees, is effected by adding
another word, and not by an inflection of the word
itself, in the following manner :
Positive. Comparative. Superlative.
Great, Go-wa-na', Ah-gwus'-go-wa-na, Ha-yo-go-sote'-go-wa-na.
Good, We-yo', Ah-gwus'-we-yo, Ha-yo-go-sote'-we-yo.
Sweet, 0-ga-uh', Ah-gwus'-o-ga-uh, Ha-yo-go-sote'-o-ga-uh.
Small, Ne-wa-ah', Ah-gwus'-ne-wa-ah, Ha-yo-go-sote'-ne-wa-ah.
But in connecting the adjective with the noun,
the two words usually enter into combination, and
lose one or more syllables. This principle, or spe¬
cies of contraction, is carried throughout the lan¬
guage, and to some extent prevents prolixity. The
language has but few primitive words, or ultimate
roots ; and when these are mastered, their presence
is readily detected and understood, through all the
elaborate and intricate combinations in which they
are used. To illustrate the manner of compound¬
ing the adjective with the substantive, the follow¬
ing examples may be taken : 0-yd\ fruit ; 0-gd-uh\
sweet ; O-yu'-ga^Ji^ sweet fruit ; 0^ the first sylla¬
ble of sweet, being dropped. Again, E'-yose^ a
blanket ; Gd'-geh-ant, white ; YoseEgeh' -ant, white
Ch. II.]
blanket ; Gorno-sote^ a house ; We-yo\ good ; Gor
no'-se-yo, a good house ; literally fruit sweet, blan¬
ket white, and house good, illustrative of that natu¬
ral impulse in man which leads him to place the ob¬
ject before the quality. In other instances the ad¬
jective is divided, and one part prefixed and the
other suffixed to the noun thus : Ga-nun' -dd-yeJi^ a
village ; Ne-wd'-ah^ small ; N'e-gd-nwn-dd'-ah^ a small
village ; Ah-tdJ -qudro-weh^ a moccason ; Ne-wd'-td-
qudroh^ a small moccason. The adjective is also
frequently used uncompounded with the noun, as
Ga-na -dike-Tio E’-yose^ a green blanket.
The indefinite article a or an^ is entirely un¬
known in the language of the Iroquois. There are
numerous particles, as in the Greek, which, without
significance in themselves separately, are employed
for euphony, and to connect other words. These
particles qualify and sometimes limit the significa¬
tion of words ; but yet if they should be submitted
to a critical examination, none of them would an¬
swer the idea of the article or an. The existence
in completeness of this refined part of speech would
indicate a greater maturity and finish, than the di¬
alects of the Iroquois possessed. But the definite
article na^ the^ is found in the language. It is not
as distinctly defined, and perfectly used, as in more
polished languages, but it is usually prefixed to sub¬
stantives, as with us, to indicate the thing intended.
Of the adverb nothing need be introduced, except
to remark that the language is furnished with the
usual variety. A few specimens may be added.
[Book HI.
Nake-lio\ here ; 0-na\ now ; Ta-da\ yesterday ; Skor
7w\ well.
The preposition is allowed to be so abstract and
metaphysical in its nature, that it would be one of
the last and most difficult parts of speech to invent.
It expresses relation “ considered in concrete with
the correlative object;” and is of necessity very ab¬
struse. The prepositions, of^ to^ and for^ are re¬
garded as the most abstract, from the character of
the relations which they indicate. Declension, it is
supposed, was resorted to by the Grreeks, and adopt¬
ed by the Latins, to evade the Necessity of invent¬
ing these prepositions ; as it would be much easier
to express the idea by the variation of the noun,
than to ascertain some word which would convey
such an abstract relation as that indicated by of or
to. By the ancient cases, this difficulty was sur¬
mounted, and the preposition was blended with the
correlative object, as in Sermonis^ of a speech ; Ser-
mon% to a speech. Modern languages have laid
aside the ancient cases, for the reason, it is said, that
the invention of prepositions rendered them unne¬
cessary. In the Iroquois language, the prepositions
above mentioned are not to be found ; neither have
its nouns a declension, like the Greek and Latin.
Some traces of a declension are discoverable ; but
the cases are too imperfect to be compared with
those of the ancient languages, or to answer fuUy
the ends of the prepositions. This part of speech
is the most imperfectly developed of any in the lan¬
guage ; and the contrivances resorted to to express
Ch. II]
such of these relatious as were of absolute necessity,
are too complex to be easily understood.
The language, however, contains the simple prep¬
ositions, as Dorga'-o^ across ; JSFo'-gd^ after ; Nd'-ho, at ;
O'-an-do^ before ; Dose-gd'-o^ near, &c. It must be
inferred that the framers of the language had no
distinct idea of the relations conveyed by the defi¬
cient prepositions, otherwise they would be found
in the language. From the number of particles
employed in the language, and the complexity of
their combinations, it would be impossible to analyze
the word, or phrase, for example, in which on oc¬
curs, and take out the specific fragment which has
the force of the preposition.
In the imperfect declensions through which the
Iroquois substantives are passed, pronouns, as well as
prepositions, are interwoven by inflection. These
declensions are not reduceable to regular forms, but
admit of great diversities, thus rendering the lan¬
guage itself, like all simple and original languages,
exceedingly intricate in its inflections. The following
examples wiU exhibit the ordinary variations of the
noun.
Ga-no'-sote,
Ho-no'-sote,
Ha-to-no'-sote,
Ho-no'-sa-go,
A-so'-gwa-ta,
Ho-so'-gwa-ta,
N a-no-so'-gwa-ta,
Ho-so'-gwa-ta-go,
O-on-dote',
Ho-on-da',
Ha'-to-de-on-dote,
A house.
His house.
Of, to, from, or at his house.
In his house.
A pipe.
His pipe.
Of his pipe.
In his pipe.
A tree.
His tree.
Of, to, from, or at his tree.
[Book HI.
0-ya',
Ho-ya',
Ho-da-ya',
Fruit
His fruit.
Of, to, from, or at his fruit.
Wa-nis'-heh-da,
Ihren-nis’-heh-dake,
Dwen-nis'-heh-deh,
Sa-'weuHQis'-hat,
Wa-sun'-da-da,
Dwa-sun'-da-dake,
Dwa-sun’-da-da,
Sa--wa-sua'-dart,
Day.
At a day past
At a day future.
With the day.
Night
At a night past.
At a night future.
With the night
Of tlie pronouns but little need be added, except
that they are very defective : thus JE signifies I, we,
me, and us ; tbou, ye or you, and tbee. He
and they^ are wanting, except as expressed in tbe
verb by its inflection. The pei’sonal pronouns
make the possessive case very regularly, thus Ali-
gdrweK^ mine; 8d-welh\ thine; Ho-we7h\ his; Go-
weh'^ hers ; Ung-givd-welh\ ours ; SwiMJoeh/^ yours ;
Ho-nau-weh' ^ theirs. Similar variations can be
made on some of the relative pronouns.
Interjections are extremely numerous in this lan¬
guage, and appear to be adapted to all the pas¬
sions. It has also the ordinary conjunctions.
Next and last, the verb presents itself. This part
of speech, in the nature of things, must have been
one of the first invented, as without its aid, there
could be no affirmation, no expression of action or
passion. Among primitive languages, the conjuga¬
tion -of the verb is extremely complex. Gram¬
marians assign as a reason, that the tenses and
moods of the verb would be more easily indicated
by its inflection, than by contriving or inventing the
Ch. IL]
substantive verb, I am ; the possessive verb, I have ;
and tbe auxiliaries, do, will, would, shall, can, and
may ; all of which are necessary in the conjugation
of an English verb. It will be remembered that
the Englisn verb admits of but three variations in
itself, as pressed^ pressing ; and its conjuga¬
tion is completed by the auxiliary verbs above-men¬
tioned ; while the Grreek, Latin, and Iroq^uois verbs
are conjugated, except some part of the passive
voice in Latin, by the variations throughout of the
verb itself ; thus, Legeram^ I had read ; Qhe-waf-ge-
yd-go^ I had shot ; Legero^ I shall have read ; A-wa-
ge'-yd-go^ I shall have shot. In this manner, the
conjugation not only dispensed with the pronouns
I, thou, and he, with their plurals, but also with
the auxiliary verbs, which have introduced such
prolixity into modern languages. The Iroquois
verbs are conjugated with great regularity and pre¬
cision, making the active and passive voices, all the
moods, except the infinitive, and all the tenses,
numbers, and persons, common to the English verb.
Some part of the optative mood can also be made.
But the participles are wanting. It is difficult to
determine upon what principle the absence of this
part of speech, which in a written language would
be a serious blemish, shall be accounted for ; and
much more difficult to ascertain the nature of the
substitute in a verbal language. A substitute for the
infinitive mood is found in the present tense of the
subjunctive mood, together with a pronoun, as in the
following passage : “ Direct that He' -no may come
EfCIDENT TO THE LEAGUE.
[Book HI.
and give us rain see tlie invocation entii^e on
page 197 ;) instead of saying, “ Dii*ect He-ao to come,
and give us rain.” In correctly translated Indian
speeclies tliis form of expression will frequently ap¬
pear, from tlie influence wMcli this idiomatic pecu¬
liarity of all Indian languages will exercise upon
tlie translator.
The origin of the dual number has been advert¬
ed to. In the active voice of Iroquois verbs, the
dual number is well distinguished ; but in the pas¬
sive voice, the dual and the plural are the same.
The presence of this number is indicative of the in¬
tricate nature of their conjugations.
To convey a distinct notion of the mutations
through which an Iroquois verb passes in its conju¬
gation, and to fmmish those who are curious, as lin¬
guists, with a specimen for comparison with the
conjugations of other languages, one of their verbs,
with its inflections, is subjoined in Appendix, No. 2.
Its great regularity, even harmony of inflection,
conveys a favorable impression of the structure of
the language ; but it does not, nor would it be ex¬
pected to possess the elegance and beauty of the
Greek, or the brevity and solidity of the Latin con¬
jugations. The principal parts of a few verbs are
given as specimens.
Pres. Indie.
IWnre Indie.
Perfect Indie.
Ge’-yase,
Eh^e'-yake,
Ah-ge'-ya-go,
To shoot
O-gee'-a,
Eh^e'-a,
Ah-ge'-a-go,
To die.
Ga-geh',
Eh-ga-geh^
Ah'-ga-geh,
To see.
Gb.-go'-ace,
Eb-ga-go'-ake,
Ah-ga'-go-a-go,
To strike.
Ah-got'-haa-da,
Eh-ga'-ouk,
Ah-ga'-o-geh,
To hear.
Kna-ga-ha',
Enk-na'-ga-a,
ELna-ga^-huk,
To drink.
It has been laid down as a maxim, that “ the
more simple any language is in its composition, the
more complex it must be in its declensions and con¬
jugations, and on the contrary, the more simple it is,
in its declensions and conjugations, the more com¬
plex it must be in its composition.” The position
is thus illustrated : when two people, by uniting or
otherT^dse, blend their languages, the union always
simplifies the structure of the resulting language,
while it introduces a greater complexity into its
materials. The Greek which is uncompounded, and
is said to have but three hundred primitives, is ex¬
tremely intricate in its conjugations. On the other
hand, the Latin, which is a compound language, laid
aside the middle voice and the optative mood, which
are peculiar to the Greek, and also the dual num¬
ber. This simplified its conjugations. In its de¬
clensions, the Latin, although it has an additional
case in the ablative, is yet much more simple than
the Greek, as it has no contract nouns. The Eng¬
lish, which is a mixture of several languages, is more
simple than either in its declensions, which are
made by the aid of prepositions alone ; and in its
conjugations, which are made by other verbs. With
this principle in mind, the regularity, fulness and
intricacy of the Iroquois conjugations are not par¬
ticularly remarkable. Its primitive words, as be¬
fore remai-ked, are few, and their language has been
formed out of them by a complex and elaborate
system of combinations.
The language of the Ho-ds' -no-sww^rm has the
408 INCIDENT TO THE LEAGUE. [Book IIL
substantive or neuter verb, E-neh'-ga^ I am, al-
tbougb imperfect in some of its tenses. This verb
is regarded by philologists as extremely difficult of
invention, as it simply expresses being. Imperson¬
al verbs are also very numerous in the language, as
O-geon'-de-o, it snows ; O-noryose'-don-de-o^ it bails ;
Gd-wa! -no-dds^ it thunders. It is supposed by those
who have inquired into the formation of language,
that most of the verbs in primitive tongues origi¬
nally took the impersonal form, for the reason that
such a verb expresses in itself an entire event, while
the division of the event into subject and attribute,
involves some nice metaphysical distinctions.
Before closing upon this subject it will be proper
to notice a few of the peculiarities of the language.
In the first place it has no labials, consequently the
Iroquois, in speaking, never touch their lips togeth¬
er. This fact may be employed as a test in the pro¬
nunciation of their words and names. TLeir lan¬
guage possesses the numerals firstly, secondly, third¬
ly, &c., also the numbers one, two, three, ascending,
by various contrivances, to about one hundred.
For sums above this, their mode of enumeration
was defective, as mathematical computation ceased,
and some descriptive term was substituted in its
place.
The voices of the Ho-dd -no-savrnee are powerful,
and capable of reaching a high shrill key. In con¬
versation its natural pitch is above the English
voice, especially with the female, whose voice by a
natural transition, frequently rises in conversation
Ch. n.]
an octave above its ordinary pitcb, and sounds upon
a tone to wbicli tlie Englisli voice could not be ele¬
vated and retain a distinct articulation. It also
passes up and down, at intervals, from octave to oc¬
tave, tbe voice retaining upon the elevated key a
clear and musical intonation.
In verbal languages tbe words appear to be lite¬
rally strung together in a chain, if the one under
inspection may be taken as a specimen. Substan¬
tives are mingled by declension with pronouns, and
sometimes with the substantive verb, or compound¬
ed with the adjective, thus forming a new word.
Particles are then conjoined, varying or adding to
the signification of the compound, until the word, by
the addition of the verb, becomes so far extended
as to embrace a perfect sentence. The principles
upon which these combinations are effected are too
much involved to be systematized or generalized.
The most which can be said is, that the general result
is accomplished by conjugations and declensions,
which, although regular in general, are diversified
and intricate. To illustrate the manner in which
words are made up, the following example may be
given. Nu/Urdci-wdrO^ the radix of the name of the
Senecas, signifies “ a great hill by suffixing o-no,
which conveys the idea of “ people Nurirda-wd'-
o-iio, results literally, “the people at the great hill.”
Next, by adding the particle ga^ itself without sig¬
nificance, but when conjoined, conveying the idea
of “place” or “territory,” it gives the compound
JSrun-darwd'-o-no-ga\ “the territory of the people at
EfOIDEUT TO THE LEAGUE.
[Book IIL
the great hill.” A more perfect specimen of the
language, as a whole, may be found in the following
version of the Lord’s Prayer in the Seneca dialect.
Gwa-nee' gAo-ya'-geh che-de-oh'; sa-sa-no-do'-
geh-teek ; ga-o' ne-dwa na' sa-nunk-ta; na-huk' ne-
ya-weh' na yo-an'-ja-geh ha’-ne-sa-ne-go'-d^ ha ne-
de-o'-di na' g^-o-ya'-geh. Dun-da-gwa-e'-wa-s^-
gwus na' ong-wi-wa-na-ai'k>seh' na' da-ya'-ke-wa-s^-
gwa'-seh na' onk-ke-wama'-a-ge. Da-ge-o'-na-geh'-
wen-nis'-heh-da na' ong-wa-qua. S^-nuk' na-huh'
heh'-squa-a ha' ga-yeh na' wa-ate-keh' na-gwa' na'
da-gwa-ya-duh'-nuh-onk ha' ga-yeh na' wa-ate-
keh'; na' seh-eh' na ese' sa-w^ na' o-nuk-ta' kuh'
na' gA-hus-ta-seh' kuk' na' da-ga-^-sa-uh'. Aa-huh'-
ne-ya-weh.^
Names of places as well as of persons, form an in¬
tegral pai’t of their language, and hence are all sig¬
nificant. It furnishes a singular test of their migra¬
tions, for accurate descriptions of localities become
^ If an attempt should be made to tion necessary, and change the forma-
give a literal translation of each word, tion of the words in some respects, as
or plirase, it would render transposi- the following will exhibit.
Gwa-nee', che-de-oh' ga-o'-ya-geh, ga-sa-nuh', ese' sa-nuk-ta' ga-oh'
Our Father, wMdi art in heaven, hallowed, be thy name, thy kingdom come,
ese' sne'-go-eh ne-ya-weh' yo an-ja'-geh ha’ ne-de-o'-deh ga-o'-ya-geh
thy will he done on earth as it is in heaven.
Uuo-da-gwa-e'-wa-sa-gwus ong-wa-yeh'-his-heh' da-ya-ke'-a-wa-
Forgive ns our debts as we forgive
sa-gwus-seh' ho-yeh’-his, Da-ge-oh' ne' na-geh' wen-nis'-heh-deh e' na-lia-
OHT debtcas. Give ns this day our
da-wen-nis'-heh-geh o-a'-<jwa. Ha-squa'-ah e' sa-no’ ha' wa-ate-keh , na-gwa
dajjy bread. Lead ns not into temptation, but
da-gwa-ya-dan'-nake ne' wa-ate-keh', na-seh'-eh nees' o-nuk'-ta na-kuh’
deliver from ns evil, for thine is the kingdom, and
na ga-hns'-tte-heh, na-kuh' da-ga-a-sa-oh'.
the power, and the glory.
Ha-huh'- se-y a-weh.
Ch. II.] NAMES OF PLACES AND PERSONS. 411
in this manner incorporated into their dialects.
The Tuscaroras still adduce proof from this source
to establish a common origin with the Iroquois, and
pretend to trace their route from Montreal, Do-te- 'aJ-
co^ to the Mississippi, O-nau-we-yo'-M^ and from
thence to North Carolina, out of which they were
driven in 1^12. The era of their separation from
the parent stock, and of this migration, they have
entirely lost ; but they consider the names of places
on this extended route, now incorporated in their
language, a not less certain indication of a common
origin than the similarity of their languages. In¬
dian languages are exceedingly tenacious of tra¬
ditionary facts intrusted to their preservation.
Book III, Chapter III
ISDIAK GEOGKAIHr. - MeTHOD OF BeSTOWISG NaMES-. - CeSTBAL
Trail. — Its Course. — Ko-la-ke'-ka. — Highway of the Cos-
•nSElST. - IteRIYAXIOS OF NiAGABA. - OyTASIO TrAIL, — GeSESEE
Trail. — Couhoctor Trail. — Susquehanya Trail. — Ifdiay
Ruxyers. — Iroquois Maf.
OuE Indian geograpliy is a subject of inquiry pe¬
culiar in its interest and in its cbaracter. Many of
the names bestowed by our predecessors liaving be¬
come incorporated into oui* language, will be trans¬
mitted to distant generations, and be familiar after
tbeir race, and perhaps om*s, have passed away.
There is stiU attainable a large amount of geograph¬
ical information pertaming to the period of Indian
occupation, which, estimated at its true value, would
amply remunerate for its collection ; and which, if
neglected, must fade, ere many yeai^, from remem¬
brance. The features of nature were fiist chris¬
tened by the red man. These baptismal names, the
legacy of the Indian, it were prodigality to cast
away. To the future scholar this subject will com¬
mend itself, when, perchance, the dusky mantle of
obscurity has enskrouded it, and reseai-ch itself can¬
not penetrate the covering.
In an antiquarian aspect, it may be considered
fortunate, that as the villages and settlements of the
Ch. Ill] METHOD OF BESTOWING NAMES. 413
Ho-de’-no-sau-nee disappeared, and tlie cities and vil¬
lages of the succeeding race were reared upon their
sites, all of these ancient names were transferred to
these substituted habitations. Yielding step by
step, and contracting their possessions from year to
year, the Iroquois yet continued in the constant use
of their original names, although the localities them¬
selves had been surrendered. If a Seneca, for ex¬
ample, were to refer to Geneva, he would still say
Gd-nun'-dd-sa'-ga ; and the Oneida in like manner
would caU Utica, Nun-da-dd' -sis. All of these lo¬
calities, as well as our rivers, lakes and streams, still
dwell in the memory of the Iroquois by their an¬
cient names, while such places as have sprung up
on nameless sites, since they surrendered their do¬
main, have been christened as they appeared. These
names, likewise, are significant, and are either de¬
scriptive of features of the country, the record of
some historical event, or interwoven with some tra¬
dition. From these causes their geography has
been preserved among them with remarkable accu¬
racy.
The Iroquois method of bestowing names was
peculiar. It frequently happened that the same
lake or river was recognized by them under several
different names. This was eminently the case with
the larger lakes. It was customary to give to them
the name of some village or locality upon their bor¬
ders. The Seneca word Te-car-ne-o-di^ means some¬
thing more than “ lake.” It includes the idea of
nearness, literally, “ the lake at.” Hence, if a Sene-
[Book III.
ca were asked tlie name of lake Ontario, ke would
answer, Ne-ah-ga Te-car-ne-o-di' ^ “ tke lake at Ne-
%h'-gdP Tliis was a Seneca village at tke moutk of
tke Niagara river. If an Onondaga were asked tke
same question, ke would prefix Swa-geli' to tke word
lake, literally, “tke lake of Oswego.”^ Tke same
multiplicity of names frequently arose in relation to
tke principal rivers, wkere tkey passed tkrougk tke
territories of more tkan one nation. It was not,
kowever, tke case witk villages and otker localities.
Tke principal villages of tke Iroquois, in tke days
of akoriginal dominion, were connected by well-
beaten trails. Tkese villages were so situated tkat
tke central trail, wkick started from tke Hudson
at tke site of Albany, passed tkrougk tkose of tke
Mokawks and Oneidas ; and, crossing tke Onondaga
valley and tke Cayuga country, a few miles nortk
of tke ckief settlements of tkese nations, it passed
tkrougk tke most prominent villages of tke Senecas,
in its route to tke valley of tke Genesee. After
crossing tkis celebrated valley, it proceeded west¬
ward to lake Erie, coming out upon it at tke moutk
of BuflPalo creek, on tke present site of Bufiialo.
Since tkis Indian kigkway passed tkrougk tke
centre of tke Long House, as well as tkrougk tke
fairest portions of New York, it is desirable to com¬
mence witk tkis trail on tke Hudson, and trace it
tkrougk tke State. It will furnisk tke most conve-
^ Lake Ontario was known at an loque in Oneida, and Ga da-o'-ka in
early day among the English as lake Seneca, signifies “ A fort in the
Cataraque. The root of this word, water.”
Ga-dai' -o-que in Onondaga, Qd-dd'-
Ch. III.]
nient method of noticing snch stopping-places as
were marked with appropriate names in the dialects
of the Iroqnois, and also the Indian villages which
dotted this extended route.
Albany, at which point the trail started from the
Hudson, owes its Iroquois name to the openings
which lay between that river and the Mohawk at
Schenectady. Long anterior to the foundation of
the city, this site was well known to our predeces¬
sors under the name of Ska-neh! -torde. The name is
given in the Seneca dialect, and signifies “ beyond
the openings.” ^ Out of this name originated that
of the Hudson, Shorneh' -ta-de Gorkmi’-da^ “ the
river beyond the openings.”
Leaving the Hudson at the site of Albany, the
trail took the direction of the old turnpike north of
the capitol, and proceeded, mostly on the line of
this road, to a spring which issued from a ravine
about six miles west. From thence it continued
towards Schenectady, and descending the ravine
through which the railway passes, it came upon the
Mohawk at the site of this city, and crossed the
river at the fording-place, where the toll-bridge has
since been erected. Schenectady has not only ap¬
propriated the Indian name of Albany, but has, by
inheritance, one of the most euphonious names in
the dialects of the Iroquois, as given by the
Oneidas. It was christened 0-no-aV d-gone, which
‘ In the Seneca dialect this word yond the swamp,” is a compound of
is compounded of GH -neh'-tH-yeh, Gai'-t&-yeh, “ a swamp,” and Se -gtoa,
“ openings,” and Se'-gwd, “ beyond.” “ beyond.”
In the same manner Skai'-dd-de, “be
[Book III.
signifies “in tlie head,” a somewhat fanciful geo¬
graphical name.
From this fording-place, two trails passed up the
Mohawk, one upon each side. That upon the south
was most travelled, as the three Mohawk castles, as
they were termed, or principal villages, were upon
that side. Following the valley, and pursuing the
windings of the river, the trail crossed the Scho¬
harie creek, Ose-lio-lcar’-la^ and entered Te-lion-da-
Jd-ga^ the lower castle of the Mohawks, situated
upon the west side of this creek, at its junction
with the river. At a subsequent day Fort Hunter
was located near the site of this Indian ^ullage.
From thence the trail, continuing up the valley
nearly on the line subsequently pursued b}^ the
canal, crossed the Canajoharie creek, near its junc¬
tion with the river, and led up to Canajoharie, Cd-
ndrjd-lid-e^ or the middle Mohawk castle. This fa¬
vorite and populous village occupied a little emi¬
nence upon the east bank of the Ot-sgud'-go creek,
and overlooking the present site of Fort Plain.
From Canajoharie, the trail followed up the river to
Gd-ne’-gadid’-gd^ the upper Mohawk castle, which
was situated in the town of Danube, Herkimer
county, nearly opposite the mouth of the East Can¬
ada creek. Leaving this Indian village, the last
in the territory of the Mohawks, the trail pursued
1 This -word signifies “ washing the in the rock. Hence the name
basin.” In the bed of the Canajo- Ca-iia-jo'-ha-e. One would naturally
harie creek there is said to be a basin, have expected to have found the
several feet in diameter, with a Indian village upon this creek, in-
symmetrical concavity, washed out stead of the Ot-squa'-go.
Ch. IIL]
the bank of tbe liver without passing any other
stopping-place, until it reached the site of Utica, in
the country of the Oneidas.
I^ear this city, on the east side, the trail passed
around the base of a hill, in such a manner as to be
noticeable for its singularity. Hence, Nun-da-da! -
signifying “ around the hill,” was bestowed upon
this localitjT-, as a name descriptive of the course of
the trail. When Utica at a subsequent day sprang
up near this spot, the name was transferred, accord¬
ing to the custom of the Iroquois, to the city itself.
From Utica, the trail proceeded up the river, and
crossing the Whitesboro creek, at Whitesboro, Glie-
gd-queh^ and the Oriskany creek, Ole-his'-ha^ at
Oriskany, it continued up the bank of the Mohawk
to Rome, where this river turns to the north.
The site of Rome was an important stopping-
place with the Iroquois, both as the terminus of the
trails upon the Mohawk, and as a carrying-place for
canoes. A narrow ridge at this point forms a divi¬
sion between those waters which flow through the
Mohawk and the Hudson, and those which flow
through lake Ontario, and the St. Lawrence. The
portage from the Mohawk to Wood creek, was about
a mile. In the days of aboriginal sovereignty, the
amount of navigation, in bark canoes, upon the
large lakes, as well as upon the smaller lakes and
rivers, was much greater than we would be apt to
suspect. Birch-bark canoes would And their way
from Detroit, and even beyond to Rome and Sche¬
nectady. Others from Kingston, would make their
18*
[Book IH.
way into the Cayuga^ and Seneca lakes, and on to
the old trading-post at the moutli of the Niagara
river. Such was the facility of transportation,
oudng to the lightness of the vessel, that the por¬
tage made but a slight obstruction. In an hour
after drawing out the canoe from Wood creek, it
was floating again upon the Mohawk ; and the cargo
having also been carried over, the frail vessel was
soon re-ladened, and under weigh upon the descend¬
ing stream.^ The aboriginal name of this locality,
Dorya-hoo-xc 'a -quat^ which signifies a “ place for car¬
rying boats,” has been besl^wed upon Rome.
The trail upon the north bank of the Mohawk
ascended the river from Schenectady nearly upon
the line since pursued by the turnpike. At Tribes
Hill, nearly opposite the lower Mohawk castle, a
branch trail crossed the country to Johnstown, Ko-
la-ne-lca^ a few miles north from the river. This
was the name bestowed upon the residence of Sir
William Johnson, the Indian superintendent. Prom
^ In 1*793, a canoe ladened with
1 200 pounds of fur started from Kings¬
ton in Canada ; and having coasted
the lake to the Great Sodus bay,
Seo-dose', and been transported from
thence over the portage to Clyde
river, it made its way into the Cayuga
lake and up to Aurora, Be-a-mn'-
dote; where the furs were tranship¬
ped in a bateau for Albany. The
canoe was owned for some years
afterwards by CoL Payne, one of the
first settlers of Aurora.
* For many years after the com¬
mencement (about 1*790) of the set¬
tlement of Western New York, the
greater part of the supplies of mer¬
chandise from the east, as well as
the immigrants who flocked thither¬
ward, with their household goods,
and farming implements, ascended
the Mohawk in bateaus or small riv¬
er boats as far as Kome. Having
drawn out their vessels at this port¬
age and unladened them, they carried
them over the .ridge and launched
them into Wood creek. Descending
to the Oswego river, which is formed
by the outlets of the principal inland
lakes of the State, the whole lake
country was open before them. Like
the Iroquois, they made use of the
natural highways of the country.
Ch. III.]
the period of the settlement of this distinguished
personage in the country of the Mohawks, and more
especially after the battle of lake George in 1Y55,
he acquired and maintained, until his death in 1774,
a greater personal influence over the Iroquois than
was ever possessed by any other individual, or even
by any government. A careful scrutiny of his in¬
tercourse with the Iroquois, shows that he exercised
a w^atchful care over their welfare, and that his con¬
duct was governed by the most enlightened principles
of rectitude and benevolence. To this fact he owed
his personal popularity, and the aflectionate respect
with which the Iroquois ever regarded him. His
house at Ko-lorne-ha was a favorite place of Indian
resort ; and the Mohawk and the Seneca, the Oneida
and the Cayuga felt as much at ease under the roof
of the baronet as beneath the wide-spread shelter
of their own forests.
Leaving Johnstown, the trail came down again
upon the Mohawk at the small Indian village of
Gd-no'-wmi-ga^ near the site of Fonda, where it in¬
tersected the river trail. Continuing up the Mo¬
hawk, and crossing the East Canada creek, Date-
car’ -hu-Jiar'-h^ and over the site of Little Falls, To-
lorqiie’-ga^ it came next upon the West Canada creek,
Te-uge’-ga^ and from thence led up to the portage
at the site of Rome.
As with lake Ontario, the Mohawk river was
known under a multiplicity of names. It is difficult
now to determine whether it had any general name
running through the several dialects by which it
[Book III.
was known to all tke nations of tlie League. Among
tke Senecas, the West Canada creek was considered
tlie true head of the river, and this stream, together
with the Mohawk from Herkimer to the Hudson,
was known as one river under the name of Tenge' -
ga^ while the Mohawk from the junction of the West
Canada creek to its source was regarded as a branch
under the name of Da-yd-lioo^d' -quat. With the
Oneidas and Onondagas it was known under the
last name, or the word which, in their respective
dialects, signifies the same thing.
From Rome, the main trail, taking a south-west
direction, passed through Verona, Te-(ynartdle\ and
finally came out at Oneida castle. This was the
principal village of the Oneidas, called in their dia¬
lect Gd-no-a-lo' -Tidle^ which is rendered “ a head on a
pole.” In this beautifully situated Indian village,
burned the council-fire of one of the nations of the
League. The Oneidas were fortunate in the loca¬
tion of their territories, embracing as they did not
only some of the finest agricultural districts of the
State, but the most attractive localities in its cen¬
tral parts.
Fording the Oneida creek at the Indian village,
the trail, continuing west, passed near the site of
Canestota, Kd-m-td-td^ crossed the Canaseraga creek,
Kd-nd~so-wd'-ga^ near the site of the village of the
same name, the Chittenango creek, Chu-d&^ng\ at
the site of Chittenango, and from thence led up to
the Deep Spring near Manlius, on the boundary line
between the territories of the Oneidas and Ononda-
ch. ni.]
gas. TMs spring was known under tke name of
Be-o-sd-dd-ya'-aK signifying “ tke spring in the deep
basin,” and was a favorite stopping-place of the Iro¬
quois in their journeys upon the great thorough¬
fare.
Leaving this locality, and continuing west, the
trail forded the Limestone creek, De-d-o-nd-lie^ at
the site of Manlius, and proceeding mostly on the
line since pursued by the turnpike, it crossed the
Jamesville creek, Gd-sun'-to^ at the site of James-
ville, and from thence descending into the Ononda¬
ga valley, it ci'ossed the Onondaga river, O-nun-da-
ga^ and entered the Indian village of Gis-twe-ah' -na^
which occupied the site of the present village of
Onondaga Hollow.
The Onondagas made this picturesque and fertile
valley their chief place of residence. Here was the
Council-Brand of the confederacy, which rendered it
the sylvan seat of government of the League. In
the estimation of the Iroquois, it was a consecrated
vale. Their eloquence, their legendary lore, and
their civil history, were all interwoven, by associa¬
tion, with this favorite valley. Here their sachems
gathered together in the days of aboriginal suprem¬
acy, to legislate for the welfare of the race. Here
they strengthened and renewed the bonds of friend¬
ship and patriotism, indulged in exultation over
their advancing prosperity, and counselled together
to arrest impending dangers, or repair the mischan¬
ces of the past. As it was upon the northern bank
of the Onondaga lake that the League was formed,
[Book III.
the united nations habitually turned to the Onon¬
daga valley as the place to brighten the chain of
brotherhood.
Upon the Onondaga river, 0-nun-da' -ga^ were the
principal villages of the Onondagas. There were
but three of any note ; one of them has been men¬
tioned as on the line of the great trail. The chief
village was Onondaga castle, Kd-nd-tci-go'-wa^ situa¬
ted upon both sides of the river, about four miles
above Q-w’-twe-ali'-na. It was quite a populous vil¬
lage in the days of their highest prosperity. Around
the council-brand which burned in this secluded place,
the sachems of the League were wont to meet.
About three miles farther up the river, and upon
the west side, the Indian village of Nan-ta-sd' -sis
was situated near the skirts of the hill. There was
another considerable village on the uplands about
four miles east of Onondaga castle, called Tu-e-a-
das-so. Throughout the whole length of the beau¬
tiful valley of the Onondaga, the bark houses of
the people were sprinkled.
After crossing the valley, the trail passed up a
small ravine to the top of the hill, where it took a
north-west dii’ection, and crossing the Mne-mile
creek, Tls-te-hi^ at the site of Camillus, 0-yd'-
Jian, it went up to a stopping-place where Carpen¬
ter’s tavern was subsequently erected, near the site
of Elbridge, Kd-no-wd' -ya. From thence fording
the Jordan creek. Ha-nan' -to, and passing through
the town of Sennet, the trail came upon the Owasco
outlet. Was' -CO, at the site of Auburn ; and forded
Ch. III.]
this stream a short distance above the prison, at the
point where the “ Red Store” was subsequently
erected. This locality was in the territory of the
Oayugas, and its name signifies “ a floating bridge.”
The Cayugas had but a few small villages, as the
people were scattered around the lake. Their prin¬
cipal village, Gw-yorgaran'-lia^ was situated upon the
bank of a creek three miles south of Union Springs,
and about a mile and a half back from the lake.
Here was the council-house of the nation. There
was another village consisting of a few houses, situ¬
ated upon the site of Union Springs, which was
called Ge-wau'-ga. Steeltrap, Ilise' -td-jee^ a celebra¬
ted Cayuga chief, was buried here. On the oppo¬
site side of the lake was the village of Gd-no'-geh^
occupying the site of the present Cannoga. Near
this village was the birthplace of Red Jacket.
Along the eastern margin of the lake, the former
residences of the Cayugas were indicated by the ap¬
ple and peach orchards which they left behind
them. Back from the lake, upon the ridge, similar,
but more numerous evidences of Indian occupation
were to be found. In 17 79, the villages of the
Cayugas were destroyed by General Sullivan.
Leaving the site of Auburn, the trail proceeded
nearly on the line of the turnpike, half-way to the
lake, where it turned out upon the south side and
came down upon the lake about half a mile above
Cayuga bridge, Wds-gwase' . At the precise point
where the trail reached the shore, the original Cayu¬
ga ferry was established. The trail, turning down
INCIDElfT TO THE LEAGUE.
[Book HI.
tlie lake, and foUowiDg its bank about four miles to
tbe old fording-place near the lower bridge, there
crossed the foot of the lake, and came out upon the
north bank of the Seneca river, Swa'-geli} Follow¬
ing up the north bank of the liver, it passed over
the site of Waterloo, Skoi-i/me^ and pursued the
stream up to its outlet from the Seneca lake. A
shorter route from the east bank of the Cajmga was
taken by crossing the lake in canoes at the ferry,
and proceeding due west to the river, which the
trail came upon at the rapids a little above Seneca
Falls. Ascending the river upon the south bank, the
trail passed through South Waterloo, 81coi-yase\
and continued up the river to the lake, where,
crossing the outlet, it intersected the other trail.
Having run along the foot of the lake upon the
beach to the present site of Geneva, Gd-^wn-dd-sa' -
ga, it turned up the Geneva creek, which it ascend¬
ed about one and a half miles north-west, to the In¬
dian village of Gd-nun-ddrsd ~ga^ the first in the ter¬
ritory of the Senecas.
This name, which signifies “ a new settlement vil¬
lage,” was bestowed upon the lake, the creek, and
also upon the outlet. At a subsequent day it was
transferred to Geneva. Dmlng the destructive in-
* There is a geografAieal novelty
in the method adopted by the Iro¬
quois to designate the several outlets
of the lakes which, united, form the
Oswego river. Descending from the
Seneca lake to Osw^o, the river was
called Swa'-geh throi^h its whole
length. But ascending from Oswego,
it was called the Onondaga river,
O-non-da'-ga, until yon passed the
outlet of the Onondaga lake. Then
it was called the Cayuga river,
Gwd-u'-gweh, until you passed the
Cayuga outlet. After that it was
called Uie Seneca river, Gd-nun-dd-
sa'-ga, up to the Seneca lake.
Ch. III.]
road of General Sullivan, in September, 1779, the
Indian village was entirely destroyed. No efforts
were ever made subsequently to rebuild it. Many
of the old trees in the Indian orchard are still stand¬
ing and yield fruit, although partially girdled at the
time. The artificial burial mound, ^ about one hun¬
dred paces in circuit, still remains undisturbed, and
also the trenches of a picket enclosure, seventy by
forty feet on the ground plan, concerning the erec¬
tion and uses of which but little can be ascertained.
From Gd-^mm-dorsa'-ga the trail proceeded
through the towns of Seneca and Hopewell, nearly
on the line of the turn23ike, to the Indian village of
Gd' -nun-dd' -gwa^ situated at the foot of the lake of
the same name. It signifies “ a place selected for a
settlement.” Canandaigua, the fairest of all the vil¬
lages which have sprung into life upon the central
trail of the Iroquois, not only occupies the site of
the Indian village, but has accepted and preserved
its name with unusual accuracy ; the only legacy
which the retiring Seneca could bestow, save the
beautiful natural scenery by which it is surround¬
ed, and which induced him “ to select it for a settle¬
ment.”
* There is an interesting tradition great bird on the water, flapping its
connected with this mound. The wings as if it wished to get out, so
Senecas say that they once had a he waded in and lifted it on land,
protector, a mighty giant, taller than He then saw on it a number of men,
the tallest trees, who split the largest who appeared dreadfully frightened,
hickory for his bow, and used pine- and made signs to him to put them
trees for his arrows. He once wan- back again. He did so, and they
dered west to the Mississippi, and gave him a sword and a musket, with
from thence east again to the sea. powder and balls, and showed him
Returning homeward over the moun- how to use them, after which the
tains along the Hudson, he saw a bird swam off and he saw it no more.
[Book IH.
Leaving Canandaigua were two trails. One turn¬
ing soutli-west, passed through tlie town of Bristol,
and led to the foot of the Honeoye lake, Ha-ne-Or
ya. After crossing the outlet, it continued west
through the town of Richmond, going over the hill
in sight of the Hemlock lake, 0-neli-dd^ and coming
out upon the Connesus, Gd-m-a' -sos^ near the north
end. Following the shore to the foot of the lake,
and fording the outlet, it proceeded west, passing
over the site of Geneseo, 0-lia'-d% and crossing the
valley and the river Genesee, Oen-nis' -lie-yo^ it led
into Little Beards town, De-o-nun -dd-gd-a^ the most
populous village of the Senecas. It is worthy of
remark that the root of the word Genesee was the
name of the valley and not of the river, the latter
deriving its name from the former. Gen-nis' -Tie-yo
signifies “the heautiful valley,” a name most fitly
bestowed.
The other trail, which was the main highway,
leaving Canandaigua, passed along the noi’th road,
over the site of TVest Bloomfield, Gd-nun'~dd-ok^ and
the Honeoye outlet, and proceeded to the Indian vil¬
lage of 8M-Jime'-gd-o^ on the site of Lima. From
Having returned to the Senecas at grieved at their reproaches, he left
Gii-nun-da-sa'-ga, he exhibited to the council, taking the dreaded Tveap-
them the wonderful implements of ons with him, and lay down in a
destruction, and fired the gun before field. The next morning he was
them. They were exceedingly ter- found, from some mysterious cause,
rified at the report, and reproached dead, and this mound was raised
him for bringing such terrible things over his body where it lay. It is
among them, and told him to take averred by the Onondagas, that if the
them away again, for they would be mound should be opened a skeleton
the destruction of the Indians, and of supernatural size would be found
he was an enemy to their nation who underneatL
had brought them ' there. Much
Ch. Ill]
thence, proceeding westward nearly on the line
since pursued by the State road, it passed over the
site of Avon, Gii-no-wau'-ges^ and, descending into
the valley of the Genesee, crossed the river a few
rods above the Avon bridge, and followed along its
bank up to the Indian village of Gorno-wau' -ges^
about a mile above the ford. This word signifies
“ fetid waters,” and was bestowed by the Senecas
upon the sulphur springs at Avon, and upon the
whole adjacent country.
Departing from the valley of the Genesee, the
trail, taking a north-west direction, led to the Cale¬
donia cold spring, De-o -na-gd-no^ a well-known
stopping-place on the central trail through the ter-
ritoiies of the L’oquois. Proceeding westward from
thence, it came upon Allen’s creek, 0-af-]cd^ at the
dam near the rapids, in the village of Le Roy. This
fording-place was known under the name Te-car'-no-
wdn-ne-dd’ -ne~o^ rendered “ many falls,” which is ac¬
curately descriptive of the locality. This name has
been conferred upon Le Roy. After turning up the
stream about a mile to avoid a marsh near the rap¬
ids, the trail again proceeded west, and crossing
Black creek, Jd-go-'o-ga^ near Stafford, it continued
in a westerly dii'ection, and finally came out upon
the Tonawanda creek, Td'-ndrwujirdd^ about a mile
above Batavia, to which it led. The ancient name
of Batavia, or rather of the locality itself, was De-o'-
on-go-ivd, which signifies “ the grand hearing-place.”
Here the rapids in the Tonawanda creek first began
to be heard, and some assert that the distant roar
EfCIDENT TO THE LEAGUE.
[Book IIL
of Niagara could be beard by tbe practiced ear of
tbe Indian, at tbis point, in certain states of tbe at-
niospbere.
Descending tbe creek, tbe trail passed over tbe site
of Batavia, At tbe point where tbe arsenal now
stands, it turned nortb-west tbrongb tbe oak-open¬
ings to Cary ville, and came again upon tbe creek at
‘‘Washington’s fording-place,” where it crossed, and
led to tbe Indian village of Tii'-nA-wim^da ^ one of
the present villages of the Senecas, situated upon
tbe bordei’s of the great swamp wbicb stretches for
many miles along the Tonawanda creek. On leaving
tbe Indian village tbe trail branched. One taking a
nortb-west direction, recrossed the creek at a short
distance below the ^ullage, and passing through the
swamp, out of wbicb it emerged near Eoyalton, it
proceeded dmect to De-d -na-gor^io^ or tbe Cold
Spring, about two miles north-east of Lockport, Ta-
ga'-ote. From thence continuing north-west, it came
out upon tbe ridge-road, where it intei’sected tbe
Ontaiio, or ridge trail, and followed tbis ridge
westward to Gd<b-no'-ga^ tbe Tuscarora Indian vil¬
lage on Lewiston Heights. Here was tbe termina¬
tion of one branch of tbe main trail upon tbe bank of
the Niagara river. This was the route to Canada.
Tbe other trail, leaving tbe village of Tonawan¬
da, took a south-west direction, and having forded
Murder creek, De-o-oon-gd-at., at Akron, and tbe
Eighteen-mile creek, Ta-nwiiriio-gd -o^ at Clarence
Hollow, it continued west, crossing EUicott creek,
GAdorO-yd -dek^ at Williams vdle, Gldshosd-dd'-ne-o^
Ch. hi.]
and leading direct to the Cold Spring, it finally came
upon the site of Buffalo at the head of Main street,
and descended to the mouth of the creek, within the
limits of the city. Here was the western terminus
of the central trail ; and like its eastern terminus on
the Hudson, it has become a point of great commer¬
cial importance, and the site of a flourishing city.
It is not a little remarkable, that these two geograph¬
ical points should have been as clearly indicated,
as places of departure, by the migrations of the red
race, as they have been at a subsequent day, by the
migrations of our own.
We have thus followed the great Indian trail,
Wora-gwen' -ne-yu^ through the State, from the Hud¬
son to lake Erie ; noticing, as far as ascertained,
the principal stopping-places on the route. To con¬
vey an adequate impression of the forest scenery,
which then overspread the land, is beyond the power
of description. This trail was traced through the
overhanging forest for almost its entire length. In
the trail itself there was nothing particularly re¬
markable. It was usually from twelve to eighteen
inches wide, and deeply worn in the ground ; varying
in this respect from three to six, and even twelve
inches, depending upon the firmness of the soil.
The large trees on each side were frequently mark¬
ed with the hatchet. This well-beaten footpath,
which no runner, nor band of warriors could mis¬
take, had doubtless been trodden by successive gen¬
erations from century to century. It had, without
question, been handed down from race to race, as
430 INCIDENT TO THE LEAGUE. [Book III.
tlie natural line of travel, geograpliically consider¬
ed, between tbe Hudson and lake Erie. While it
is scarcely possible to ascertain a more direct route
than the one pursued by this ti’ail, the accuracy
with which it was traced from point to point, to
save distance, is extremely surprising. It proved,
on the survey of the country, to have been so judi¬
ciously selected, that the turnpike was laid out main¬
ly on the line of this trail, from one extremity of the
State to the other. In addition to this, all the
larger cities and villages west of the Hudson, with
one or two exceptions, have been located upon it.
As an independent cause, this forest highway of the
Iroquois doubtless determined the establishment of
a number of settlements, which have since grown
up into cities and villages.
There are many interesting considerations con¬
nected with the routes of travel pursued by the abo¬
rigines; and if carefully considered, they will be
found to indicate the natural lines of migration sug¬
gested by the topography of the country. The
central trail of the Iroquois, which we have been
tracing, after leaving the Mohawk valley, one of
nature’s highways, became essentially an artificial
road across the drainage of the country, fording riv¬
ers, crossing valleys, and traversing marshes and
dense forests, pursuing its course over hill and plain,
through stream and thicket, as if in defiance of na¬
ture, vdthout an aim and without a reason. Yet the
establishment of this trail between two such points
as Albany and Buffalo, exhibits not only the extent
Ch. Ill] HIGHWAY OF THE CONTINENT. 431
and accuracy of tlie geographical knowledge of our
predecessors, but also indicates the active intercourse
which must have been maintained between the va¬
rious races east of the Mississippi. The tide of pop¬
ulation which has poured upon the west, in our
generation, mostly along the line of this old trail of
the Ho-de’-no-sau-nee^ and the extraordinary chan¬
nel of trade and intercourse which it has become,
between the north-western States and the Atlantic,
sufficiently and forcibly illustrate the fact that it
was and is, and ever must be, one of the great nat¬
ural highways of the continent.
Having traced the main trail from the Hudson to
lake Erie, it remains to notice briefly the lake and
river trails, and to locate such Indian villages as
were situated upon them. In pursuing this inquiry,
the Ontario trail first arrests our attention. Bor¬
dering lake Ontario, from Oswego to Lewiston,
there is a ridge running, for the entire distance,
from three to six miles inland from the shore, and
mostly a continuous level. From the shore-marks
everywhere conspicuous, it is generally admitted
that this ridge w^as anciently the shore of the lake,
the basin of which has been depressed some three
hundred feet, or the surrounding country elevated
by subterraneous agencies. A natural road is form¬
ed by this ancient beach from Oswego to Lewiston.
From the valley of Genesee to Niagara, it was ex¬
tensively travelled by the Iroquois, as one of the
routes to Canada.
Oswego, Swd' -g6h^ was a point of considerable im-
[Book IIL
portance to oiii’ predecessors, botli as tlie terminus
of tlie trails wliicli descended tlie river from tlie
Onondaga and Oneida country, and as the inlet of
intercourse by water from lake Ontario. Com¬
mencing at the site of this place, the trail followed
the ridge to the westward, until it came upon the
Irondequoit bay, Kii-dd’On'-d&quai^ when it turned
up the bay to its head. From the head of the bay,
the trail turned back from the ridge, and proceeded
direct to the Genesee ford, at Rochester, Gci-sko'-
m-go^ which crossed the river at the point where
the aqueduct has since been constructed. Turning
down the river to the lower falls, it came again
upon the ridge-road, which it followed westward to
Ga-o-nd -geh^ the Tuscarora village near Lewiston.
* Here was the principal crossing-place into Canada.
Having now reached the banks of the Niagara,
and the vicinity of the great cataract, the deriva¬
tion of the word Niagara suggests itself as a sub¬
ject for inqniiy. Colden wrote it O-ni-ag-a-ra, in
1741,^ and he must have received it from the Mo¬
hawks or Oneidas. It was the name of a Seneca
village at the mouth of the Niagara river, located
as early as 1650, near the site of Youngstown. It
was also the place where the Marquis He Nonville
constructed a fort in 1687, the building of which
brought this locality under the particulai’ notice of
the English. The name of this Indian village in
the dialect of the Senecas was Ne-alGgii^ in Tusca¬
rora O-ne-d'-kars, in Onondaga O-m-ah'-gd^ in Onei-
1 Golden’s History of tlie Five Nations, ed. of 1141, p. 79.
ch. ni]
da 0-ne-ah' -gale^ and in M.oh^siwkO-ne-a' -gd-7^d. These
names are but the same word under dialectical
changes. It is clear that Niagara was derived from
some one of them, and thus came direct from the
Iroquois language. The signification of the word is
lost, unless it be derived, as some of the present
Iroquois suppose, from the word which signifies
“neck,” in Seneca O-ne-ah'-d^ in Onondaga 0-ne-
yd'-d^ and in Oneida O-ne'-arle}
The name of this Indian village was bestowed by
the Iroquois upon Youngstown ; upon the river Ni¬
agara, from the falls to the lake ; and upon lake
Ontario, as has been elsewhere stated.
In bestowing names upon water-falls, the Iro¬
quois custom agrees with the English. The name
of the river is connected with the word “ fall.” In
the case of Niagara Falls, however, an adjective is
incorporated vdth the word “ fall,” as the idea of its
grandeur and sublimity appears to have been iden¬
tified with the fall itself. Thus, in Onondaga
it is called Date-ca7^'-slco-sis^ in Seneca Date-cai^'-slco-
sase^ the word Ne-ah!-gd being understood. It sig¬
nifies “ the highest falls.”
In the broad valley of the Genesee, the Senecas
established most of their villages. Of great ex¬
tent, boundless fertility, and easy cultivation, it be¬
came their favorite residence, and fuUy deserved
the appellation of “the beautiful valley,” which
they bestowed upon it. Its situation in the centre
» Bancroft is in error in deriving this word from the language of the
Neuter Nation.
[Book HI.
of tlieir territories, and tlie easily forded river wMcli
flowed tkrongli it, alike invited to its settlement.
At tlie period of tlieir highest prosperity, it became
the most thickly peopled district in the country of
the Iroquois.
From Eochester there were two trails up the
Genesee, one upon each side. That upon the west
side, following the bank of the river, first entered
the small Indian 'S'illage of upon the site of
Scotts^dlle ; and continuing up the valley upon the
flat, it next passed into the Indian village of Gd-no-
wau-ges^ before mentioned.^ From thence the trail
pursued the winding of the river up to 0-hd'-g% a
Tuscm*ora village on the flat, between two and three
miles below Cuylerville. Proceeding up the river,
it next led up to the Seneca village of Gd-un-do'-
wd-neh,^ or “ big tree,” which was situated upon the
hill about one mile north of Cuylerville. Here at
a subsequent day was marked off to the Senecas
the “Big Tree Eeservation,” in the same manner
as they had reserved a tract around the favorite
village of Gdr^i(MDau‘-ges. Leaving this village, the
trail turned a bend in the river, and entered De-o-
nun-ddrgd^^ or Little Beard’s town, also before men¬
tioned. It was situated upon the flat immediately
in front of Cuylerville, and on the opposite side of
the valley from Geneseo. Adjacent to this village,
upon the sloping bank, was a small settlement called
Gdr7heJi-dd-07i-twd. There was also an Indian vil-
^ Mr. Hewbold’s farm embraces tbe site of this ancient village.
GENESEE TRAIL. ‘ 435
lage upon the site of Moscow, Gd-nun' -dd-sa. The
trail, following up the river, next turned out of this
valley, and led up to Bcirychit'-ga-o, or Squakie Hill,
opposite Mount Morris. This word signifies “ where
the river issues from the hills,” and it is beautifully
descriptive of the emergence of the river from be¬
tween its rocky barriers into the broad valley of
the Genesee.
It is a singular feature of the country, geologi¬
cally considered, that the valley follows the river
from near Rochester to Mount Morris only. At
the latter place the river is suddenly confined in a
narrow channel cut through the rock, while the
valley, which at this place is about three miles
wide, follows the Caneseraga creek, Gd-nose'-gd-go^
up to Dansville, situated at its head. From Mount
Morris south, up the Genesee, the valley is narrow
and irregular, until at Portage the whole scenery
is changed into rugged declivities and picturesque
water-falls. On the Caneseraga creek, however,
from Dansville down to Mount Morris, the scenery
and the valley are quite the same as upon the Gen¬
esee from the latter place to Rochester. This
“beautiful valley” of the Senecas, varying from
one half mile to three miles in breadth, for the dis¬
tance of forty miles, vies with, if it does not surpass,
the more celebrated valley of Wyoming.
Leaving Squakie Hill, the trail continued up the
river, crossing the outlet of the Silver lake, Gd-na'-
ydt, and entering the Indian village of Gdrddro\
situated in the town of Castile, Genesee county.
[Book IIL
Here, at a subsequent day, was the Gardow Reser¬
vation. From thence the trail continued up the
river, and over the site of Portage, to the Indian
village of O-wa-ie'-hi^ near the confluence of the
creek of the same name with the Genesee. Having
crossed this stream, the trail led up the river to Gor
o-yd-de-o^ or Caneadea, the last Seneca village upon
the Genesee. It was situated in the town of Hume,
in the county of Allegany. The name is rendered,
“the heavens leaning against the earth.” It ap¬
pears that there was an extensive opening at this
locality, on looking through which the heavens and
earth appeared to meet, or the sky seemed to rest
upon the earth. Subsequently, there was a large
reserve retained by the Senecas around this village,
which is still marked upon old maps as the “ Canea¬
dea Reservation.” In this manner may be discov¬
ered the favorite residences of the Senecas upon the
river. The Genesee trail, which we have been trac¬
ing, was one of the routes to the Allegany river, O-
hee’-yo^ for those who sought to descend that stream
towards the south-west.
O-hee'^o^ the radix of the word Ohio, signifies
“ the beautiful river ;” and the Iroquois, by confer¬
ring it upon the Allegany, or head branch of the
Ohio, have not only fixed a name from their lan¬
guage upon one of the great rivers of the continent,
but indirectly upon one of the noblest States of our
Confederacy.
The trail upon the east side of the Genesee, start¬
ed from the ford, near the aqueduct, at Rochester,
Ch. III.]
COraOCTON TRAIL.
and turning a little back from the river, crossed
Mount Hope. To commemorate the fact, one of
the principal carriage-ways through the cemetery,
which was laid upon the line of the trail, has been
named “ Indian Trail Avenue.” Ascending the Gen¬
esee, it followed the windings of the river up to
Mount Morris, So-no'-jo~wau-ga^ where there was a
small Indian village, the only one upon the east
bank of the river. So-no'-jo-wau-ga^ or Big Kettle,
a Seneca orator, scarcely inferior to Eed Jacket in
the estimation of the nation, erected his sylvan
house upon the site of Mount Morris ; and the Sen¬
ecas bestowed his name upon the cluster of houses
which sprung up around him, and at a subsequent
day upon Mount Morris itself, one of the most at¬
tractive villages in the region of the Genesee.
From thence there were two trails up the Cane-
seraga creek, Goruose -gd-go^ one upon each side.
They led up to the small Indian village of Gd-nose'-
gd-go^ situate upon the site of Hansville, at the head
of the valley.
Leaving the Genesee country, we come next to a
system of trails which point to the southward. The
Susquehanna and its branches penetrated the coun¬
try of the Mohawks, Oneidas and Onondagas on
the east and north, while the Chemung and its
branches flowed through the territory of the Sen¬
ecas, from near the Genesee, upon the north-west.
These rivers, by their junction at Tioga, form as it
were a triangle, having Tioga point as its apex, and
the central trail through the State, from east to
mCIDENT TO THE LEAGUE.
[Book III.
west, as its base. Following the course of these
numerous streams from the north-east and north¬
west, these several trails converged upon Tioga,
and descending the Susquehanna, formed the Great
Southern trail, or highway of travel and migration
into the south. The trails upon the L-oquois lakes,
which lay north and south, in a measure connected
the Central with the Susquehanna trail. Within
this triangle were seated the Mohawk, Oneida, Tus-
carora, Onondaga, Cayuga, and a part of the Sen¬
eca Nations.
These trails running upon the banks of -the rivers,
which are the highways fashioned by the hand of
nature, need not be minutely traced, as they follow¬
ed the windings of the streams. A trail descended
the Conhocton river, Ga-ha'-to^ to Tioga, Ta-yd'-o-
ga. The convergence of so many trails upon this
point, preparatory to a descent upon the south,
through Pennsylvania, and into Virginia on the
west side of the Blue Bidge, rendered it an impor¬
tant and well-known locality among the Iroquois.
From Tioga there were two trails up the Susque¬
hanna, Gdrwa-mhwd'-nd. That upon the north bank
ascending the river, passed over the site of Owego,
Ah-wa’-ga^ forded the Chenango, 0-che-ndng\ near
its mouth, and passing over the site of Binghamp-
ton, 0~che-ndng‘^ continued up the river to the junc¬
tion of the Unadilla, De-u^nordiV-lo, where it in¬
tersected the trail coming down from the Oneida
country. Continuing up the Susquehanna to the
junction of the Charlotte river, the trail branched.
One ascended to tlie junction of the Cherry Valley
creek, and following up this creek, finally passed
over to Canajoharie. The other trail, having as¬
cended the Charlotte river to its head, crossed over
to the Cobuskill, A.s-ca-le -ge^ and descended that
stream to the Schoharie creek, where it intersect¬
ed the Schoharie trail, from the lower castle of
the Mohawks. From Schoharie, Ose-ho-har' -la, a
branch trail turned up Foxes creek, and crossing the
Helderberg hills, descended to Albany. Another
branch leaving the Schoharie, crossed the town of
Middleburg to the Caatskill river, and descended
that river to the Hudson.
Many of the early settlers of middle Pennsyl¬
vania, and nearly all of our people who located
themselves on the fertile tracts spread out upon
the Susquehanna, entered the country upon these
trails, Avhich were the only roads opened through
the forest. They trusted entirely for their route to
the well-beaten, well-selected trails of the Iroquois.
The same observation applies to the central trail,
which, before the opening of regular roads, was trav¬
ersed by the early pioneers of western JMew York,
with their horses, cattle, and implements of hus¬
bandry. For many years this trail was the only
route of travel. It guided the early immigrants
into the heart of the country, and not a little were
they indebted to the Iroquois for thus making their
country accessible.
There were also regular beaten trails along the
banks of our inland lakes, which were used for
[Book III.
liuiiting purposes, for mutual intercourse, and as
routes of communication between tbe central tbor-
ougbfare, and the river trails which converged
upon Tioga.
We have thus followed the devious footsteps of
the L’oquois, for many hundred miles through their
territories, and restored some of the names in use
during the era of Indian occupation. Facts of this
character may not possess a general interest ; but
they will find an appropriate place among our abo¬
riginal remains. The trails of our Indian predeces¬
sors, indeed, have been obliterated, and the face of
nature has been transformed; but all recollection
of the days of Indian supremacy cannot as easily
pass away. They wiU ever have “ a share in our
history.”
“ The Empire State, as you love to call it,” said a
Cayuga chief on a recent occasion, “ was once laced
by oui’ trails from Albany to Buflhlo, — trails that we
had trod for centuries, — trails worn so deep by the
feet of the Iroquois, that they became your roads of
travel, as your possessions gradually eat into those of
my people. Your roads still traverse those same
lines of communication, which bound one part of the
Long House to the other. Have we, the first hold¬
ers of this prosperous region, no longer a share in
your history ? Glad were your fathers to sit down
upon the threshold of the Long House. Had our
forefathers spurned you from it, when the French
were thundering at the opposite side to get a pas¬
sage through, and drive you into the sea, whatever
ch. m.]
lias been tbe fate of other Indians, the Iroquois
might still have been a nation, and I, instead of
pleading here for the privilege of living within
your borders, I — ^might have had a country.” ^
A brief reference to Indian runners will not be
inappropriate in this connection. To convey intel¬
ligence from nation to nation, and to spread infor¬
mation throughout the Confederacy, as in summon-
iug councils upon public exigencies, trained runners
were employed. But three days were necessary, it is
said, to convey intelligence from Buffalo to Albany.
Swiftness of foot was an acquirement, among the
Iroquois, which brought the individual into high re¬
pute. A trained runner would traverse a hundred
miles per day. With relays, which were sometimes
resorted to, the length of the day’s journey could
be considerably increased. It is said that the run¬
ners of Montezuma conveyed intelligence to him
of the movements of Cortes, at the rate of two
hundred miles per day ; but this must be regarded
as extravagant. During the last war, a runner left
Tonawanda at daylight in the summer season, for
Avon, a distance of forty miles upon the trail. He
delivered his message, and reached Tonawanda
again about noon. In the night their runners were
guided by the stars, from which they learned to
keep their direction, and regain it, if perchance
they lost their way. During the fall and winter,
they determined their course by the Pleiades, or
1 Peter Wilson, {Wti-o-wo-wd-no' -onk) before the New York Historical
Society, in May, 1847.
Iff
[Book III.
Seven Stars. This group in the neck of Taurus,
they called Got-gwar’-dar. In the spring and sum¬
mer they ran by another group, which they named
Gwe-o-gd'-ah^ or the Loon, four stars at the angles
of a rhombus. In preparing to carry messages they
denuded themselves entirely, with the exception of
the Gd-kiC-ah^ or breech cloth, and a belt. They
were usually sent out in pairs, and took their way
through the forest, one behind the other, in perfect
silence.
LTpon the accompanying map, the trails which
have been traced will be found. Also the names in
the several dialects of the Iroquois, of the lakes,
rivers, and creeks ; of the Indian villages, and an¬
cient localities, known to our immediate predeces¬
sors ; and the names of our own cities and villages,
which have been christened as they appeared.^
This map is newdy designed, to exhibit the Home
Country of the Ho-de'-nosaii-nee.
The Iroquois were the master spirits of the north.
Fortunate in their geographical position, and pow¬
erful from the concentration of their strength
through the League, the lesser tribes scattered over
these vast territories could offer but slight obstruc¬
tion to their combined attack. Large masses, like
the Sioux of the west, or the Cherokees of the
south, were alone able to withstand their valor, or
resist their invasions. In comparison with other
' la the Appendix No. 1, wiU be fication of each, arranged under their
found a schedule containing all the respective counties,
names upon the Map, with the signi-
Ch. in.]
Indian nations, the Ii’oquois might well exult in
the superiority of their institutions ; and felicitate
themselves upon the high destiny which seemed to
await the full development of their civil insti¬
tutions. V
Book III, Chapter IV
Future Destiny of the Indian. — His Reclamation. — Schools of
THE Missionaries. — The Christian Party. — Schools of the
State. — Future Citizenship. — Their Indebtedness to Mission¬
aries. — Rights of Property. — Injustice of Neglect. — System
OF Superintendence. — Duty of the American People. — The
Indian Department.
The future destiny of tlie Indian upon tliis conti¬
nent, is a subject of no ordinary interest. If tbe
fact, that be cannot be saved in bis native state,
needed any proof beyond tbe experience of tbe past,
it could be demonstrated from tbe nature of things.
Our primitive inhabitants are environed with civil¬
ized life, the baleful and disastrous influence of
which, when brought in contact with Indian life, is
wholly irresistible. Civilization is aggressive, as
well as progressive — a positive state of society, at¬
tacking every obstacle, overwhelming every lesser
agency, and searching out and filling up every
crevice, both in the moral and physical world;
while Indian life is an unarmed condition, a negative
state, without inherent vitality, and without powers
of resistance. The institutions of the red man fix
him to the soil with a fragile and precarious tenure ;
while those of civilized man, in his highest estate,
enable him to seize it with a grasp which defies dis¬
placement. To uproot a race at the meridian of its
Ch. IV.] FUTURE DESTINY OF THE INDIAN. 445
intellectual power, is next to impossible ; but tbe
expulsion of a contiguous one, in a state of primitive
rudeness, is comparatively easy, if not an absolute
necessity.
Tbe manifest destiny of tbe Indian, if left to bim-
self, calls up tbe question of bis reclamation, cer-
tainly, in itself, a more interesting, and far more im¬
portant subject than any wbicb bave before been con¬
sidered. All tbe Indian races now dwelling witbin
tbe Republic bave fallen under its jurisdiction ; thus
casting upon tbe government a vast responsibil¬
ity, as tbe administrator of tbeir affairs, and a sol¬
emn trust, as tbe guardian of tbeir future welfare.
Should tbe system of tutelage and supervision,
adopted by tbe national government, find its high¬
est aim and ultimate object in tbe adjustment of
tbeir present difficulties from day to day ; or should
it look beyond and above these temporary consid¬
erations, towards tbeir final elevation to tbe rights
and privileges of American citizens ? This is cer¬
tainly a grave question, and if the latter enterprise
itself be feasible^ it should be prosecuted with a zeal
and energy as earnest and untiring as its importance
demands. During tbe period witbin wbicb this
question will be solved, tbe American people cannot
remain indifferent and passive spectators, and avoid
responsibility ; for while tbe government is chiefly
accountable for tbe administration of tbeir civil
affairs, those of a moral and religious character,
wbicb, at least, are not less important, appeal to the
enlightened benevolence of tbe public at large.
rN'CIDENT TO THE LEAGUE.
[Book III.
Whether a portion of the Indian family may yet
he reclaimed and civilized, and thus saved eventu¬
ally from the fate which has already befallen so
many of our aboriginal races, will furnish the theme
of a few concluding reflections. What is true of the
Iroquois, in a general sense, can be predicated of any
other portion of our primitive inhabitants. For this
reason the facts relied upon to establish the hypoth¬
esis that the Indian can be permanently reclaimed
and civilized, will be drawn exclusively from the
social history of the former.
There are now about four thousand Iroquois liv¬
ing in the State of New York. Having for many
years been surrounded by civilization, and shut in
from ail intercourse with the ruder tribes of the
wilderness, they have not only lost their native
fierceness, but have become quite tractable and hu¬
mane. In addition to this, the agricultural pursuits
into which they have gradually become initiated,
have introduced new modes of life, and awakened
new aspirations, until a change, in itself scarcely
perceptible to the casual observer, but in reality
very great, has already been accomplished. At the
present moment their decline has not only been ar¬
rested, but they are actually increasing in numbers,
and improving in their social condition. The prox¬
imate cause of this universal spectacle is to be found
in their feeble attempts at agriculture ; but the re¬
mote and the true one is to be discovered in the
schools of the missionaries.
To these establishments among the Iroquois, from
Ch. IV.] SCHOOLS OF THE MISSIOHAIIIES. 44^
the days of the Jesuit fathers down to the present
time, they are principally indebted for all the pro¬
gress they have made, and for whatever prospect
of ultimate reclamation their condition is beginning
to inspire. By the missionaries they were taught
our language, and many of the arts of husbandry,
and of domestic life ; from them they received the
Bible and the precepts of Christianity. After the
lapse of so many years, the fruits of their toil and
devotion are becoming constantly more apparent :
as, through years of slow and almost imperceptible
progress, they have gradually emancipated them¬
selves from much of the rudeness of Indian life.
The Iroquois of the present day, is, in his social con¬
dition, elevated far above the Iroquois of the seven¬
teenth century. This fact is sufficient to prove, that
philanthropy and Christianity are not wasted upon
the Indian ; and further than this, that the Iroquois,
if eventually reclaimed, must ascribe their preserva¬
tion to the persevering and devoted efforts of those
missionaries, who labored for their welfare when
they were injured and defrauded by the unscrupu¬
lous, neglected by the civil authorities, and op¬
pressed by the multitude of misfortunes which
accelerated their decline.
There are but two means of rescuing the Indian
from his impending destiny ; and these are educa¬
tion and Christianity. If he will receive into his
mind the light of knowledge, and the spirit of civ¬
ilization, he will possess, not only the means of self-
defence, but the power with which to emancipate
[Book III.
liimself from tlie tliraldom in whicli lie is held.
The frequent attempts which have been made to
educate the Indian, and the numerous failures in
which these attempts have eventuated, have, to
some extent, created a belief in the public mind,
that his education and reclamation are both impos¬
sible. This enterprise may still, perhaps, be consid¬
ered an experiment, and of uncertain issue ; but ex¬
perience has not yet shown that it is hopeless.
There is now, in each Indian community in the State,
a large and respectable class who have become ha¬
bitual cultivators of the soil ; many of whom have
adopted our mode of life, have become members of
the missionary churches, speak our language, and
are in every respect, discreet and sensible men. In
this particular class there is a strong desire for the
adoption of the customs of civilized life, and more
especially for the education of their children, upon
which subject they often express the strongest soli¬
citude. Among the youth who are brought up
under such influences, there exists the same desire
for knowledge, and the same readiness to improve
educational advantages. Out of this class Indian
youth may be selected for a higher education, with
every prospect of success, since to a better prepara¬
tion for superior advantages, there is superadded a
stronger security against a relapse into Indian life.
In the attempted education of their young men, the
prime difficulty has been to render their attainments
permanent, and useful to themselves. To draw an
untutored Indian from his forest home, and, when
the CHRISTIAN PARTY. 449
carefully educated, to dismiss Mm again to tlie wil¬
derness, a solitary scholar, would be an idle experi¬
ment ; because Ms attainments would not only be
unappreciated by Ms former associates, but be would
incur tbe hazard of being despised because of them.
The education of the Indian youth should be gen¬
eral, and chiefly in schools at home.
A new order of things has recently become appa¬
rent among the Iroquois, which is favorable to a
more general education at home, and to a higher
cultivation in particular instances. The schools of
the missionaries, established as they have been, and
are, in the heart of our Indian communities, have
reached the people directly, and laid the only true
and solid foundation of their permanent improve¬
ment. They have created a new society in the
midst of them, founded upon Christianity ; thereby
awakening new desires, creating new habits, and
arousing new aspirations. In fact they have gath¬
ered together the better elements of Indian society,
and quickened them with the light of religion and
of knowledge. A class has thus been gradually
formed, which, if encouraged and strengthened, will
eventually draw over to itself that portion of our
Indian population which is susceptible of improve¬
ment and elevation, and willing to make the attempt.
Under the fostering care of the government, both
state and national, and under the still more effi¬
cient tutelage of religious societies, great hopes may
be justly entertained of the ultimate and perma¬
nent civilization of this portion of the Iroquois.
[Book UL
It is, indeed, a great undertaking to work off the
Indian temper of mind, and infuse tkat of another
race. It is necessary, to its accomplishment, to com¬
mence in infancy, and at the missionary school,
where our language is substituted for the Indian
language, om’ religion for the Indian mythology,
and om’ amusements and mode of life for theirs.
When this has been effected, and upon a mind thus
prepared has been shed the light of a higher knowl¬
edge, there is not even then a firm assurance that
the Indian nature is forever subdued and submerged
in that superior one which civilization creates. In
the depths of Indian society there is a spirit and a
sentiment to which their minds are attuned by na¬
ture ; and great must be the power, and constant
the influence which can overcome the one, or eradi¬
cate the other.
In the education of the Iroquois, New York has
recently made a commencement. Prior to 1846 our
Indian youth were excluded from the benefits of the
common school fund ; their want of preparation for
such schools, furnishing, to some extent, a sufficient
reason. At that time schools were first opened
among them under appropriations from the public
fund. These schools have not met with encourag¬
ing success ; but their efficiency would have been
much greater if they had been organized upon the
boarding-school or missionary plan, instead of that
of the common school. The former is the more
practicable and successful system of Indian educa¬
tion ; and it is greatly to be hoped that it will soon
Ch. IV.]
be adopted. To meet tbe growing demand for a
higher education, the State Normal School, within
the past year, has not only been opened to a limited
number of Indian youth, but a sufficient appropria¬
tion made for their maintenance while improving
its advantages. These two important events form
an interesting era with the modern Iroquois. It
remains only to give them permanent boarding-
schools at home for the instruction of the mass of
their youth, with access to the Normal School for
their advanced scholars, and in a few years they
will rise in the scale of intelligence, as far above
their present level, as their fathers raised themselves,
in the days of aboriginal sovereignty, above the
level of cotemporary nations.
In addition to the special claim which the residue
of the Iroquois have upon the people of the State,
every principle of philanthropy pleads for the en¬
couragement of their young men in their efforts to
obtain a higher course of instruction than the lim¬
ited earnings of Indian husbandry can afford. The
time has come, in their social progress, when they
are capable of a thorough intellectual training, and
are able to achieve as high and accurate a scholar¬
ship, as many of their white competitors. The time
has also arrived when academical attainments will
prove a blessing to themselves, and to their fami¬
lies. By the diffusion of knowledge among them
the' way wiU be facilitated for the introduction of
the mechanic arts, and for their improvement in ag¬
ricultural pursuits. A smaU band of educated
INCIDEIfT TO THE LEAGUE.
[Book IIL
young men in eacli Indian community would find
sufficient employment for their acquired capacities,
in the various stations of teacher, physician, me¬
chanic, and farmer ; in each and all of which they
would greatly promote the general welfare. If the
desire for improvement, which now prevails among
them, is met and encouraged, it will requii*e but a
few years to initiate them into the arts of civilized
life, and to prepare them eventually for exercising
those rights of property, and rights of citizenship,
which are common to om-selves. How much more
noble for the State to reclaim and save this interest¬
ing and peculiar portion of her people, than to ac¬
celerate their extinction by injustice ; or to abandon
them to their fate, when they are struggling to
emancipate themselves by taking into their hands
the implements of agriculture, and opening their
minds to the light of knowledge.
There is no want of sympathy for their welfare
among the people of New York ; on the contrary,
there is a wide-spread and deep-seated interest in
their future reclamation. Whatever can be done
to ameliorate their condition, and encourage that
portion who have commenced the work of their
own improvement, would receive the warmest com¬
mendation. K the Indian puts forth his hand for
knowledge, he asks for the only blessing which we
can give him in exchange for his birthright, which
is worthy of his acceptance.
The education and Christianization of the Iroquois
is a subject of too much importance, in a civil as-
Ch. IV.] THEIR IlfDEBTEDNESS TO MISSIONARIES.
pect, to be left exclusively to tbe limited and fluctu¬
ating means of religious societies. The schools
established and sustained among them by private
benevolence, are, to the Indian, almost the same as
common schools to our own people ; and without
them the Indian would, in times past, have been
denied all means of instruction. These schools
bring together the youth for elementary tuition, as
a necessary preparation for moral and religious
training. While there, they adopt, in all respects,
the habits of civilized life, are taught our language,
and the more simple elementary studies. In so far,
it would be but a just act of public beneficence to
allow those pupils to draw the same share of public
money which falls to the other children of the State.
A system of public Indian education, upon such a
plan as their circumstances demand, should either
be adopted by the State ; or a portion of the public
money, bearing some proportion to the number of
Indian pupils, should be placed at the disposal of
the local missionary, to be expended with an equal
portion contributed by private benevolence, or by
the Indians themselves. It is time that our Indian
youth were regarded, in all respects, as a part of the
children of the State, and brought under such a
system of tutelage as that relation would impose.
The vast extent of the religious enterprises of the
present day has tended to draw the attention of
the Christian world away from the Indian, into
fields more distant, and perhaps more attractive.
During the past sixty years, the Iroquois have re-
[Book ILL
ceived but a small share of tlie Chiistian watchful¬
ness to which theii’ wants entitled them. Faithful
and zealoi^ missionaries, it is true, have labored
among them, producing results far greater than is
genei-allT believed ; but the inadequate scale upon
which these missions were organized, and the fluc¬
tuations in their efficiency, which were inseparable
from their irregular and limited supplies, have pre¬
vented them from candying forward their work to
its full completion. But whatever has been done,
is chiefly to be ascribed to them, and to the denom¬
inations which they represent.
Too much cannot be said of the teachableness of
the Indian, and of his aptitude to learn, when sub¬
jected to systematic disciphne. If the same means,
and the same influences which are employed to ed¬
ucate and elevate the mass of our own people, and
without the constant application of which, they
themselves would soon fall into ignorance, were
brought to bear upon om* Indian population, they
would rise under it with a rapidity which would
excite both sm-prise and admiration. Instances are
not wanting, among the present Ii'oquois, of attain¬
ments in scholarship which would do credit to any
studentw To give employment to those Indian
youth whose acquired capacities would enable them
to fiU stations of trust and profit among om*selves,
is another species of encouragement which com¬
mends itself to the generous mind. Both in our
civil and social relations with the red men, we re¬
gard them as a distinct and separate class : when in
Ch. IV.]
each of these relations they should not only be re¬
garded as onr fellow-men, but as a part of our own
people. Born upon the soil, the descendants of its
ancient proprietors, there is no principle which
should make them aliens in the land of their nativ¬
ity, or exclude them from any of those advantages
which are reserved to ourselves. So far as they are
able to appreciate and enjoy the same privileges
which pertain to the mass of the people, the claim
for participation which their situation silently puts
forth should not be disregarded.
The lands of the Iroquois are still held in com¬
mon, the title being vested in the people. Their
progress towards a higher agricultural life, has ren¬
dered this ancient tenure a source of inconvenience ;
although they are not as yet prepared for their di¬
vision among the people. Each individual can im¬
prove and enclose any portion of their common
domain, and sell or retain such improvements, in the
same manner as with personal property ; but they
have no power to transfer the title to the land to
each other, or to strangers. As early as the reign of
James the Second, the right of purchasing Indian
lands was made a government right exclusively, by
royal proclamation, and it proved such a necessary
shield against the rapacity of speculators, that this
humane provision is still retained as a law in all
the States of the Union, and by the national gov¬
ernment. When the Iroquois reach such a stable
position, as agriculturists, as to make it safe to di¬
vide their lands among the several families of
INCroENT TO THE LEAGHR
[Book HI.
eacli nation, witli tlie power of alienation, it will
give to them that stimnlns and ambition which
separate rights of property are so well calculated
to produce. The present system has at least the
merit of saving all the people from poverty and
vagrancy, if it does not enable a portion of them to
become thrifty and substantial agricultmists. The
first step towards the amelioration of their condi¬
tion in this particular, would be a division among
themselves, with the power of alienation to each
other, under such restrictions as would be adapted
to the case. This would serve to prepare the way
for other changes, until finally they could be re¬
stored, with safety to themselves, not only to *the
full po^ession of those rights of property which are
common to ourselves, but also to the rights and
pri^dleges of citizens of the State. When this time
arrives, they will cease to be Indians, except in
name.
The progressive elevation of our Indian popula¬
tion, here indicated, if carried to a successful result,
would save but a portion of the Indian family ; but
that portion would become, in every respect, as use¬
ful and respectable as any other portion of our
people. They would neither be wanting in ability,
or morality, or public spirit ; and perhaps it is not
too much to conjecture, that specimens of the high¬
est genius, and of the most conspicuous talent, here¬
after destined to figure in the civil history of our
Republic, may spring from the ranks of the Indian
citizens.
Ch. IV.] SYSTEM OE SUPERINTENDENCE. 45Y
On tlie otlier hand, if they are left, nnencouraged
and unassisted, to struggle against their adverse
destiny— or, more fatal still, if they are subjected to
a false and unjust system of superintendence, the
whole Indian family will ere long fade away, and
finally become enshrouded in the same regretful
sepulchre, in which the races of New England lie
entombed.
The present system of national supervision is ev¬
idently temporary in its plans and purposes, and
designed for the administration of our Indian affairs
with the least possible inconvenience, rather than
for their ultimate reclamation, to be followed by
the bestowment of citizenship. It carries, upon all
its features, the impression, that the presence of the
Indian upon this continent is temporary ; and that
he must inevitably surrender the remainder of his
possessions, when he shall have become surrounded
by the white man, and the summons be sent in for
the customary capitulation. The sentiment which
this system proclaims is not as emphatic as that
emblazoned upon the Roman policy towards the
Carthaginians — Carthago est delenda^ — “ Carthage
must be destroyed '. ” but it reads in not less signifi¬
cant characters — The destiny of the Indian is exter¬
mination. This sentiment, which is so wide-spread
as to have become a general theme for school-boy
declamation, is not only founded upon erroneous
views, but it has been prejudicial to the Indian
himself. If, then, public opinion and the national
policy are both wrong upon these great questions,
INCIDEJfT TO THE LEAGUE.
[Book III.
or if tliere are even strong grounds for suspecting
tiieni to "be so, it becomes an act of justice, as well
as of duty, to correct the one, and change the other.
Our Indian relations, from the foundation of the
Republic to the present moment, have been adminis¬
tered with reference to the ultimate advantage of
the government itself ; while the reclamation of the
Indian has been a secondary object, if it ever entered
into the calculation in the slightest degree. Mil¬
lions of money, it is true, have been expended, and
some show of justice preserved in their complicated
affiiirs ; but in all prominent negotiations the profit
has been on the side of the government, and the
loss on that of the Indian. In addition to this, in¬
stances of sharp-sighted diplomacy, of ungenerous
coercion, and of grievous injustice, are to be found
in the journal of our Indian transactions — a perpetual
stigma upon the escutcheon of our Republic. If
references are demanded to the paragraphs, the
reader may turn to that upon the Seminoles, or to
the Georgia Cherokee treaty, executed by the gov¬
ernment, or to the more recent treaties with the
Iroquois themselves, in which the government bar¬
tered away its integrity, to minister to the rapacious
demands of the Ogden Land Company.
Jeffei-son made the civilization of the Indian a
subject of profound consideration, and a favorite
element of the national pohcy during his adminis¬
tration. Washington, at a still earlier period, re¬
garded the futui’e welfare of the Indian with deep
solicitude. In founding the fii’st system of inter-
Ch. IV.] duty of the AMERIOA.N PEOPLE. 459
course and superintendence, lie was guided by tbe
niost enlightened principles of justice and benevo¬
lence ; and to such a degree were tbe Iroquois, in
particular, impressed with tbe goodness and benefi¬
cence of bis character, that they not only bestowed
upon him, in common with other Indian nations, tbe
appellation of father^ but to this day be is known
among them as “ tbe Great American.” Tbe ag¬
gressive spirit of tbe people, however, in connection
with tbe slight estimation in which Indian rights
were held, has ever been found too powerful an ele¬
ment to be stayed. It has bad free course during tbe
last sixty years, until tbe whole territory east of tbe
Mississippi, with inconsiderable exceptions, has been
swept from tbe Indian. This fact renders any argu¬
ment superfluous, to show, that within this period
tbe reclamation and preservation of the red man
has formed no part of tbe public policy.
But within tbe same period tbe moral elements
of society have been developed and strengthened
to such a degree as to work a change in public sen¬
timent. A kindlier feeling towards tbe Indian is
everywhere apparent, joined with an unwilbngness
to allow him to be urged into further extremities.
He has been sufficiently the victim of adverse for¬
tune, to be entitled to a double portion of tbe inter¬
est and assistance of tbe pbilantbropist ; and a new
day, it is to be hoped, has already dawned upon bis
prospects.
It cannot be forgotten, that in after years our
Republic must render an account, to tbe civilized
[Book HI.
world, for tlie disposal whicli it makes of tke In¬
dian. It is not sufficient, before tbis tribunal, to
plead inevitable destiny; but it must be shown
affirmatively, that no principles of justice were vio¬
lated, no efforts were omitted, and no means were
left untried to rescue them from their perilous po¬
sition. After all has been accomplished which the
utmost efforts of philanthropy, and the fullest dic¬
tates of wisdom can suggest, there wiU still be suffi¬
cient to lament, in the unpropitious fate of the
larger portion of the Indian family. It is the great
office of the American people, first, to shield them
against future aggression, and then to mature such
a system of supervision and tutelage, as will ulti¬
mately ra^e them from the rudeness of Indian life,
and prepare them for the enjoyment of those rights
and privileges which are common to ourselves.
To the Indian Department of the national gov¬
ernment, the wardship of the whole Indian family
is, in a great measure, committed ; thus placing it
in a position of high responsibility. If any discrim¬
ination could be made between the several depart¬
ments of the government, this should be guided by
the most enlightened justice, the most considerate
philanthropy. Great is the trust reposed, for it in¬
volves the character of the white race, and the
existence of the red. May it ever be quickened to
duty by a vivid impression of its responsibilities,
and never violate, for any consideration, the sacred
trust committed to its charge.
The profoundly truthful sentiment of Cicero,
Ch. IV.]
“ without the highest justice a republic cannot be
governed,” furnishes a text eminently worthy of
being studied in this connection. It would form an
apt inscription, to be written over the doorway of
the Indian Department —
“ Sine summa justitia Rempublicam regi non posse.’